THE  RISE  OF 
INTERNATIONALISM 


BY 

JOHN  CULBERT  PARIES,  A.  M. 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE 

DEGREE  OF 

DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN  THE 

FACULTY  OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 
1915 


W.  D.  GRAY 

BOOK    MANUFACTURER 

422  WEST  20rH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


COPYRIGHTED  1915 
BY 

JOHN  CULBERT  PARIES,  A.M. 


QA' 


TO 

MY  WIFE 

WHOSE  LOYAL  COOPERATION 

MADE  THIS  STUDY 

POSSIBLE 


31.1453 


PREFACE 


This  study  was  begun  in  the  "piping  times  of  peace"  when 
an  appreciation  of  the  marvellous  growth  made  by  international- 
ism during  a  half -century  inclined  one  to  believe  that  a  great 
war  between  the  leading  nations  of  the  world  was  unlikely — if 
not  impossible.  The  probability  that  pacific  relations  between 
the  Christian  Powers  would  be  maintained  had  been  strength- 
ened by  every  effort  towards  international  understanding  and 
by  the  multiform  expressions  of  a  growing  public  consciousness 
that  war  is  unnecessary,  wasteful  and  inhuman. 

The  reactionary  force  of  a  narrow  nationalism  was  under- 
rated in  our  hopes  for  the  immediate  fruition  of  fifty  years  of 
international  cooperation.  While  the  sentiment  for  the  peace- 
ful settlement  of  international  differences  was  strengthening 
each  year,  there  was  developing  in  Europe  a  trigger  situation 
which  the  old  time  secret  diplomacy  was  impotent  to  cope  with 
and  for  which  there  was  no  organization  of  the  peace  forces 
that  could  sense  the  danger  or  avert  the  disaster.  Some  one 
pulled  the  trigger,  and  the  future  must  determine  who  was  the 
international  assassin. 

Some  shallow  thinkers  hastily  concluded  that  international- 
ism had  broken  down,  and  that  pacifism  was  proven  to  be  the 
irridescent  dream  of  "dreamers  who  dreamt  that  they  had 
been  dreaming."  It  was  not  internationalism  that  broke  down, 
but  the  old  Machiavellian  diplomacy.  Internationalism  grows 
faster  among  the  citizenry  than  in  the  chancelleries  of  the 
nations.  Absolutism  still  has  its  Bastile  which  citizen  hands 
will  dismantle  in  the  coming  days  of  the  international  era 
which  no  recrudescence  of  selfish  nationalism  can  turn  back 
for  long.  The  haste  with  which  the  foreign  offices  gave  to  the 


6  PREFACE— Continued 

world  their  diplomatic  correspondence  relating  to  the  inter- 
national explosion  is  evidence  of  an  appreciation  of  the  exis- 
tence of  a  bar  of  public  opinion  before  which  those  guilty  of 
a  crime  against  Christian  civilization  must  stand  for  judg- 
ment. For  fifty  years  that  public  opinion  has  been  educated 
as  to  what  international  morality  demands  national  conduct 
shall  be. 

This  study  is  offered  as  an  evidence  of  the  extent  of  the 
growth  of  internationalism  and  the  magnitude  of  a  crime 
which  retards  its  growth.  If  a  vision  of  what  the  good  of  the 
whole  world  demands  shall  be  given  to  those  who  sit  in  the 
council  to  determine  the  terms  of  peace,  there  will  be  con- 
certed such  measures  as  were  lacking  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
in  1815.  Surely,  fifty  years'  growth  in  internationalism  must 
register  itself  in  the  result  of  the  world's  Great  War. 

New  York,  May  1,1915. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  MEANING  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

PAGE 

Definitions — Mutual  Aid — The  Larger  Synthesis — Not  Cosmo- 
politanism— Enlarged  Interest  of  Local  Group — Social  Equili- 
brium— A  Modern  Phenomenon — Questions  to  be  Con- 
sidered    11 

CHAPTER  II. 

PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS 

No  Internationalism  before  Nineteenth  Century — Concurrent 
Nationalism — National  Commerce — Economic  Doctrine — 
Congress  of  Vienna — Slavery  and  Piracy — Holy  Alliance — 
Conference  of  Troppau — Monroe  Doctrine — Panama  Con- 
gress— Industrial  Revolution — Christian  Missions — Evolu- 
tion and  Scientific  Unity — 1851  as  Point  of  Departure  .  .  18 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE  WORLD'S  FAIR 

Early  Fairs — Privileges — National  Expositions — First  World's 
Fair — First  Paris  Exposition — Le  Play  and  Congresses — 
Paris  Expositions  of  1878  and  1889— World's  Columbian  Ex- 
position— Parliament  of  Religions — Paris  Exposition  of  1900 
— Louisana  Purchase  Exposition,  1904 — Effects  ....  31 


8  CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  IV. 
OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES 

PAGE 

Value  of  Discussion — Classification — How  Official  Conferences 
Arise — Permanent  Unions — International  Administration — 
Sanitation — Standardization — Exploration  and  Mensuration 
— Conservation —  Communication — Commerce  and  Industry 
— Police  Regulation — International  Legislation — Rules  of 
War  —  Peace  Conferences  —  Private  International  Law  — 
Patents  and  Copyrights — Pan-Americanism — The  Inter- 
national Habit 43 

CHAPTER  V. 
UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES 

Larger  Content  of  Unofficial  Congresses — Economic  Interest — 
Recreational  Interest — Artistic  Interest — Scientific  Interest 
— Educational  Interest — Religious  Interest — Social  Interest 
—Industrial  Life— Public  Health— Charity  and  Relief- 
Public  Morals— Peace  73 

CHAPTER  VI. 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  INTERNATIONALISM 

Early  Universities — Latin — Growth  of  National  Languages — 
Exchange  of  Students — Student  Organizations — Exchange 
Professorships 99 

CHAPTER  VII. 

INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  CLUBS,  FRIEND- 
SHIP SOCIETIES  AND  FOUNDATIONS 

Correspondence  Clubs — Friendship  Societies — Foundations  and 

Prizes— Rhodes'  Scholarships 106 


CONTENTS— Continued  9 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
A  WORLD  LANGUAGE 

PAGE 
Alternatives — Difficulties — Attempts  at   Auxiliary   Language — 

Volapuk — Idiom  Neutral — Esperanto — International  Delega- 
tion—Ido      113 

CHAPTER  IX. 

INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION 

Facilities  for  Travel — The  Emigrant — United  States  as  "Melting 
Pot" — The  Re-migrant — Reflex  Influence — "Birds  of  Pass- 
age"— Passenger  Movement  of  World — Isochronizing  Life  of 
World 118 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM 

Introduction  of  Opium  into  China — Prohibition — Chinese  Seclu- 
sion— Indian  Opium  Monopoly — China's  Denial  of  National 
Equality — Bullionist  Policy — Attempted  Enforcement  of 
Prohibition  by  Lin — Opium  War — Treaty  of  Nanking — 
"Arrow  War" — Position  of  United  States — Treaties  of  Tient- 
sin— Anti-Opium  Agitation — Royal  Opium  Commission — 
Opium  Traffic  in  Philippines — Sympathy  for  China  in  United 
States — Imperial  Prohibition  Rescript — "Ten  Year  Agree- 
ment"— International  Opium  Commission — Findings — First 
Opium  Conference — Second  Opium  Conference 1 29 

CHAPTER  XI. 
PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

Normal  Internationalism — Equality  of  Status — Fulness  of  Par- 
ticipation— Universality  of  Interest — Tendencies — Away  from 
Absolutism — Towards  Higher  Interests — Permanence  of  Re- 
lations— Equalization  of  World  Conditions — Peace  ...  159 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  MEANING  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

Internationalism  is  the  embodiment  of  a  new  conception  of 
the  advantages  of  rational  cooperation  in  the  whole  field  of 
1  human  endeavor.  It  shows  how  men  tend  to  act  when  the 
human  understanding  is  freed  from  the  shackles  of  narrow 
provincialism  and  grasps  the  possibility  of  a  practical  world 
unity.  It  expresses  a  growing  awareness  of  the  inter-depen- 
dence of  the  parts  into  which  the  human  race  has  been  differ- 
entiated. 

The  adjective  "international"  has  been  established  in  the 
English  language  for  a  little  more  than  a  century.  The  coinage 
V  of  the  word  is  credited  to  Jeremy  Bentham1  who,  in  1780, 
V.  offered  it  as  a  more  significant  expression,  as  applied  to  a  cer- 
tain branch  of  law,  than  the  older  term,  "the  law  of  nations."2 
Rifhardson's  Dictionary,  published  in  1838,  mentions  it  as  "a 
modern  word  in  established  use"  without  defining  it.3  It  is 
not  found  in  any  of  the  various  editions  of  Dr.  Johnson's  Dict- 
ionary until  the  revision  of  1876.  About  1840  it  passed  over 
into  France,  but  did  not  appear  in  the  dictionary  of  the  French 
Academy  until  the  edition  of  1877.4  The  general  index  to  the 
British  Parliamentary  Papers  from  1801  to  1826  does  not  make 
use  of  the  adjective  which  occupies  an  increasingly  large  place 
in  all  late  government  indices. 

Th^jub^tajitoe^'internationalism,"  is  of  more  recent  origin. 
It  first  appears  in  the  dictionaries  in  a  specific  sense  as  the 
doctrine  of  the  International  Workingmen's  Association,  a 
socialistic  organization  formed  in  London  in  1864,  under  the 

1  Fitzedward  Hall,  "Modern  English,"  1837,  p.  317. 

2  Jeremy  Bentham,  "An  Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legisla- 

tion," p.  326. 

8     Charles  Richardson,  "A  New  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  1838. 
4    Annuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale,  1908-9,  p.  31. 


12  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

leadership  of  Karl  Marx.1  Three  late  dictionaries,2  indeed, 
offer  more  general  definitions  of  internationalism,  while  one3 
defines  it  in  a  specific  sense  which  is  certainly  not  in  keeping 
with  the  generally  accepted  idea. 

Most  thoughtful  people  have  some  idea  of  what  the  term 
internationalism  means  and  the  concept  is  growing  in  content 
every  day.  A  man's  mental  horizon  is  circumscribed  by  the 
radius  along  which  he  projects  himself  into  the  world.  The 
circle  may  be  large  or  small.  Similarly,  a  man's  conception  of 
internationalism  is  proportionate  to  his  knowledge  of  and  in- 
terest in  conditions  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his  own  nation. 
That  interest  may  be  political,  economic,  scientific,  religious 
or  social.  The  sum  of  all  the  interests  of  all  men,  expressed  in 
action  which  cuts  across  national  and  racial  boundaries,  may 
be  said  to  make  up  the  body  of  internationalism. 

Internationalism  may  be  defined  to  be  that  cooperation  be- 
tween governments  or  their  citizens  which  tends  to  coordinate 
their  efforts  toward  material  or  moral  betterment  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  whole  social  order.  Such  cooperation  may  be 
official,  as  when  governments  form  an  association  like  the 
Universal  Postal  Union,  or  when  they  send  plenipotentiaries 
to  draw  up  articles  which  shall  have  the  force  of  international 
law,  as  at  the  Hague  Conferences;  or  it  may  be  un-official,  as 
when  the  representatives  of  private  organizations  seek  to  co- 
ordinate the  work  of  those  interested  in  any  particular  field  of 
effort.  To  the  latter  class  belong  by  far  the  largest  number  of 
international  congresses  and  associations.  We  are  warranted, 

1  Imperial  Dictionary,  1882;  Encyclopaedic  Dictionary,  1885;  Century  Diction- 
ary and  Encyclopedia,  1879. 

1  Murray's  New  English  Dictionary,  1901:  "International  character  or  spirit; 
the  principle  of  community  of  interests  or  action  between  different  nations." 
The  Standard  Dictionary,  1913:  "The  character  of  being  related  to  more 
nations  than  one  or  to  nations  generally."  Webster's  International  Dict- 
ionary, 1913:  "International  character,  principles,  interests  or  sentiments; 
also,  international  organization,  influence  or  common  participation." 

1  Century  Dictionary,  New  Vol.,  1909:  "Specifically,  the  principle  of  forcing  a 
somewhat^  disorganized  or  weak  country  to  submit  to  the  combined  control 
or  protection  of  several  stronger  nations."  Egypt  was  the  case  in  mind. 


•fe- 


THE  MEANING  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  13 

/therefore,  in  including  within  internationalism  that  cob'pera-^ 
tion  of  the  citizens  of  various  nations  which  may  fall  far  shorty 
.of/International  law. 

lx  Internationalism  is  the  latest  and  broadest  manifestation 
of  that  spirit  of  mutual  aid  which  runs  as  a  formative  principle 
through  all  the  associations  of  men  back  to  their  simplest 
forms.  Mutual  aid  has  even  been  observed  in  the  behavior  of 
animals  that  band  together  for  protection  and  advantage.1 
The  history  of  society  tells  how  men  have  been  led  to  form 
larger  and  larger  groupings  through  the  recognition  of  mutual 
interests.  Families  have  been  expanded  into  tribes  and  clans 
and  these  have  been  compacted  into  nations  through  purposive 
cooperation.  This  process  has  progressed  through  the  critical 
examination,  in  the  light  of  the  advantages  of  a  larger  syn- 
thesis, of  those  customs  and  institutions  which  tend  to  render 
the  life  of  a  social  group  static. 

For  centuries  society  halted  at  that  synthesis  which  we  call 
nationalism.  It  is  still  as  large  a  synthesis  as  men  of  parochial 
minds  are  capable  comfortably  of  grasping.  The  possession 
of  a  national  language  and  literature,  the  fires  of  a  common 
altar,  the  enjoyment  of  a  geographically  restricted  domain, 
the  fancied  advantages  of  an  economic  independence,  a  pre- 
dominant racial  type  or  complexion — these  have  been  the  in- 
sulating material  which  has  kept  the  men  of  different  nations 
apart.  But  things  have  happened  during  the  past  hundred 
years  or  so  which  have  caused  men  to  question  whether  the 
real  welfare  of  a  nation  is  advanced  by  the  natio-centric  point 
of  view,  or  by  measures  for  purely  selfish  aggrandizement. 
New  currents  have  set  out  from  the  national  shore  to  the  op- 
posite poles  to  return  again  and  say  that  the  ocean  of  truth 
is  one  in  spite  of  headlands  and  continents.  There  is  dawn- 
ing on  the  world  a  larger  synthesis  which  embraces  the  whole 

Peter  Kropotkin,  "Mutual  Aid  a  Factor  in  Evolution." 
F.  H.  Giddings,  Principles  of  Sociology,"  Book  III,  Chap.  I. 


14  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

of  humanity  and  men  are  coming  to  think  that  in  some  way 
the  welfare  of  the  snuggest  and  most  complacent  nation  in  the 
world  is  implicit  in  the  welfare  of  the  whole  social  order.  We 
are  examining  again  the  barriers  between  the  nations — their 
customs,  languages,  racial  peculiarities — to  see  if  these  may 
not  well  give  way  to  the  beautiful  Ringstrasse  of  a  world-city. 
A  Internationalism  is  not  the  same  as  cosmopolitanism  which 
has  a  detachedness  about  it  that  makes  it  seem  in  a  degree 
unnatural.  The  man  "unwept,  unhonored  and  unsung,"  who 
drew  the  scorn  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  was  the  man  without  at- 
tachment for  his  native  land.  Macauley  speaks  of  "that  cos- 
mopolitan indifference  to  constitutions^and  religions  which  is 
often  observable  in  persons  whose  life  has  been  spent  in  vagrant 
diplomacy."  There  is  nothing  unattached  or  vagrant  about 
internationalism.  Its  native  soil  is  the  life  of  the  smallest 
human  group.  Those  things  which  one  social  group  has  found 
it  expedient  and  advantageous  to  do  in  advancing  its  economic 
or  moral  welfare  have  some  relationship  to  the  progress  of  any 
other  group  similarly  circumstanced,  for  men  are  swayed  by 
the  same  motives,  derive  their  subsistence  from  the  same 
natural  resources  and  are  heirs  to  the  same  fleshly  ills.  And 
when  it  happens  that  there  is  some  degree  of  intercourse  be- 
tween such  groups  it  is  inevitable  that  the  life  of  one  must 
affect  the  life  of  the  other.  When  there  is  conscious  effort  to 
realize  the  larger  life  of  the  group  by  action  which  is  in  har- 
monious adjustment  to  the  efforts  of  the  other  group  we  have 
the  essence  of  that  cooperation  which,  when  it  exists  between 
nations,  we  call  inter  nationalism  \  The  cooperative  effort  may 
be  concerned  with  the  interests  of\  single  class,  but  of  a  class 
distributed  through  different  nations.  The  lines  of  cleavage 
run  across,  rather  than  with,  national  stratification^ 
^f^  Internationalism  seeks  the  coordination  of  effort  of  every 
'  group,  no  matter  what  its  interest  may  be.  The  interest  may 
be  that  of  the  workingman  seeking  to  improve  the  conditions 


THE  MEANING  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  15 

under  which  the  labor  of  the  world  is  performed.  It  may  be 
that  of  the  scientist  who  recognizes  the  necessity  for  common 
standards  of  measurement  and  the  collation  of  facts  from  every 
portion  of  the  globe.  It  may  be  that  of  the  economist  who 
knows  that  conditions  abroad  affect  the  solution  of  the  local 
problem.  It  may  be  that  of  the  meliorist  who  wishes  to  know 
the  success  or  failure  of  this  or  that  plan  in  other  lands.  Or 
the  religionist,  under  the  sway  of  a  conviction  that  his  cult  has 
a  message  for  all  races  of  men  seeks  that  cooperation  and 
comity  with  the  like-minded  of  other  nations  which  will  secure 
economy  of  effort  and  the  widest  field  of  action. 
/So  internationalism  is  the  carrying  over  into  the  world-field 

/of  the  efforts  of  the  local  or  national  group  under  the  conviction 
that  any  effort  which  stops  short  of  this  is  fragmentary,  and 
therefore  lacks  effectiveness  and  permanency.  If  patriotism 
be  that  passionate  love  for  country  which  moves  one  to  seek 
its  highest  good,  it  is  in  perfect  accord  with  internationalism 
which  is  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  that  highest  good  can 
only  be  secured  by  an  intelligent  cooperation  with  the  men  of 
other  nations  working  toward  similar  ends.  Internationalism 
tends  to  expand  patriotism  into  a  love  for  humanity,  to 
large  national  consciousness  into  world-consciousness.  It 
moves  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  the  particular 

/to  the  universal. 

A   Internationalism  is  a  socializing  process  tending  to  establish 

f  social  equilibrium  in  the  race.  To  a  degree  which  is  only  now 
coming  to  be  realized,  the  well-being  of  every  member  of  the 
human  race  depends  upon  raising  the  moral  and  economic 
level  of  mankind.  It  has  been  recognized  that  within  the  small- 
er group,  say  the  national,  where  communication  and  inter- 
action are  possible,  the  status  of  the  individual  rises  and  falls 
with  the  general  level.  Under  modern  conditions  of  inter- 
course through  commerce,  travel,  migration  and  news-service, 
it  is  becoming  more  and  more  apparent  that  world-wide  con- 


16  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

ditions  affect  the  individual.  Under  these  conditions  contribut- 
ing to  free  intercourse,  the  backward  and  degenerate  nations 
tend  to  retard  the  progress  of  the  civilized.  But  the  hope  of 
the  race  is  in  the  reciprocal  truth  that,  under  these  conditions 
of  contact  and  intercourse,  the  highly  civilized  races  tend  to 
raise  the  backward  ones. 

In  the  growth  of  internationalism  we  are  able  to  mark  that 

cooperation  which  must  profoundly  affect  the  relations  of  men 

hitherto  conceived  of  as  being  divided  by  geographical  locus, 

language,  customs  and  racial  peculiarities  into  groups  between 

which  there  is  presumptively  little  that  is  of  mutual  interest. 

1    This  old  presumption,  a  relic  of  barbarism/is  breaking  down 

1  under  modern  conditions  of  intercommunication  and  men  are 

\  forced  to  realize  that  no  nation  can  either  live  or  die  unto 

itself,  and  that  the  socialization  of  every  group  of  men,  wherever 

!  situated,  is  the  vital  concern  of  all. 

Internationalism  is  a  modern  social  phenomenon  whose  rise 
comes  largely  within  the  last  fifty  years.  It  has  many  modes 
or  manifestations  that  may  be  studied.  These  are  principally 
international  diplomatic  conferences,  unofficial  congresses, 
associations,  bureaus  and  other  organizations  which  carry  over 
effort  into  a  wider  field  of  action  than  the  national  and  which 
aim  at  cooperation  and  coordination  in  advancing  their  par- 
ticular interests.  A  study  of  these  modes  should  reveal  the 
tendencies  of  internationalism  and  suggest  its  meaning  in  the 
field  of  human  endeavor. 

^.Several  questions  suggest  themselves  to  be  borne  in  mind 
in  the  discussion  of  the  subject  which  follows: 

What  things  have  happened  in  the  material  and  intellectual 
world  to  produce  conditions  favorable  to  the  rise  of  inter- 
nationalism? 

What  are  the  manifestations  of  internationalism  which  ren- 
der it  capable  of  being  measured  and  justify  the  claims  of  pro- 
gress? 


THE  MEANING  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  17 

What  are  the  qualities  in  a  movement  which  merit  its  ac- 
ceptance as  a  mode  of  internationalism? 

What  will  be  the  practical  effect  of  the  growth  of  inter- 
nationalism upon  humanity  in  general? 

/"It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  to  treat  of  the  mani- 
festations of  internationalism  that  may  be  found  in  the  private 
f  treaties  between  nations,  nor  to  study  the  question  from  the 
I  view-point  of  international  law. 


\ 


CHAPTER  II. 
PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS 


.     Internationalism  does  not  appear  as  a  distinct  phenomenon 
/  earlier  than  the  nineteenth  century.    Throughout  the  historic 
/   period  there  have  been  various  manifestations  of  the  coopera- 
tive spirit.   Some  have  seen  adumbrations  of  internationalism 
in  such  gatherings  as  the  Amphictyonic  Council  of  Greece,  the 
ecumenical  councils  of  the  Chri^^nJ^uich  and  the  Crusades. 
But  a  little  reflection  upon  the  nature  and  objects  of  Uiese 
gatherings  will  show  that  they  have  few  of  the  elements  of 
internationalism.     There  could  be  no  internationalism  until 
\     there  were  nations  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word. 

The  seed-bed  of  internationalism  was  a  group  of  nations  in 
Western  Europe  "growing  side  by  side,  and  too  nearly  equal 
in  power  for  any  one  of  them  to  hope  to  maintain  supremacy 
over  any  other."1  The  nations  of  the  East,  India,  China  and 
Japan,  separated  by  great  natural  barriers,  developed  their 
',  own  peculiar,  self-contained  civilizations.  Their  national  life 
became  static  through  isolation  and  no  conditions  favorable 
to  cooperation  appeared  after  more  than  three  thousand  years 
of  Asiatic  neighboring.  It  was  different  on  the  European  Con- 
tinent where  intercourse  was  less  restricted.  Many  of  the  rivers, 
like  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  the  Scheldt  and  the  Danube,  were 
international  in  their  meanderings.  No  lofty  Himalayas  or 
dreary  deserts  put  their  veto  on  the  mingling  of  the  men  of 
different  races  and  degrees  of  culture.  Here  there  grew  up  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  what  might  be  termed 
concurrent  nationalism,  that  is,  a  neighborhood  of  states  nearly 
*eaual  in  power. 

^Imperialism  occurs  when  one  nation  can  lord  it  over  others 
exploit  them  for  its  own  advantage.    When  there  is  some 

F.  H.  Giddings,  "Principles  of  Sociology,"  p.  301. 


PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS  19 

approximation  to  a  balance  of  power  between  contiguous 
states  it  is  unlikely  that  the  aggression  of  any  one  will  be  sub- 
mitted to  by  the  others,  for  there  is  always  the  possibility  of  a 
coalition  that  will  prove  stronger  than  the  individual  state. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  there  was,  under  the  aegis  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  a  kind  of  imperial  unity,  which  bound  the 
various  peoples  of  Europe  together.  The  articles  of  religious 
faith  and  practice  were  prescribed  for  all  and  enforced  by  means 
of  a  complete  hierarchical  system.  Latin,  which  was  the 
language  of  the  church,  the  universities  and  the  courts,  enabled 
the  educated  men  of  Italy,  France,  Germany  and  England  to 
communicate  freely.  The  feudal  system,  by  preventing  the 
centralization  of  civil  authority,  contributed  to  the  imperialism 
of  the  church. 

But  religion,  language  and  political  custom,  which  had  con- 
served a  kind  of  unity  in  Europe  were  now  to  play  a  distinctly 
national  part.  Following  the  Protestant  Revolt  some  nations 
became  Protestant  and  the  religious  wars  which  followed 
served  _to  develop  the  national  spirit.  Latin,  so  long  the 
language  of  the  learned,  decayed  and  there  grew  up  national 
literature  in  the  vernacular  expressing  national  ideals  and  fos- 
tering a  national  spirit.  Feudalism  gave  way  to  the  centraliza- 
tion of  power  in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign.  The  old  unities 
were  broken  up  but  there  was  to  appear  in  time  a  new  scien- 
tific unity  that  should  bind  together,  not  Christendom  only, 
but  the  whole  human  race. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  nationalistic  spirit  commerce  came 
to  be  regarded  as  an  affair  of  the  state  and  subject  to  its  direct- 
ing hand.  In  the  Middle  Ages  commerce  had  been  inter-muni- 
cipal rather  than  international.1  It  was  Venice,  Genoa,  and 
other  Italian  cities  that  fetched  the  products  of  the  East  from 
the  Mediterranean  termini  of  the  caravan  routes  to  the  marts 


Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  chap.  15;  H.  B.  Gibbins,  "History  of  Com- 
merce in  Europe." 


20  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

of  Europe.  During  the  Crusades  the  wants  of  man  had  been 
greatly  stimulated.  The  courts  wanted  silks  and  jewels  from 
China  and  India.  Churches  burned  incense  made  from  exotic 
gums.  In  a  day  when  refrigeration  was  not  practised  the  salted 
meats  and  Lenten  fish  tasted  better  when  seasoned  with  spices 
from  the  Moluccas.  The  healing  art  of  the  day  looked  to  the 
East  for  its  principal  medicaments.  These  articles  of  luxury 
became  so  firmly  fixed  in  the  standard  *of  living  of  the  European 
manor  and  town  that  the  old  self-contained  life  was  gone 
forever.1 

When  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  in  1453,  completed  the 
Mohammedan  blockade  of  the  overland  trade  with  India,  an 
all-sea  route  to  the  treasure  house  of  the  Orient  was  discovered 
by  Vasco  da  Gama  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  while 
another  seeker  for  the  same  goal  discovered  the  shores  of  a  new 
continent.  Venice  declined  as  the  Portugese  monopolized  the 
carrying  trade  and  Lisbon's  wharves  were  piled  high  with  the 
bales  of  the  East.  Then  the  Dutch  ships  displaced  the  Portu- 
gese, and  Antwerp  became  the  world's  emporium.  Thus  we 
pass  from  the  narrow  horizon  of  medieval  commerce  to  world 
trade  and  national  commercial  interest. 

It  was  Spain,  in  the  enjoyment  of  her  over-sea  possessions, 
that  set  the  fashion  for  the  national  regulation  and  adminis- 
tration of  commerce.  Only  Spanish  ships  could  trade  with  the 
New  World  and  these  galleons  brought  such  stores  of  silver 
from  the  mines  of  Peru  and  Mexico  as  to  excite  the  cupidity  of 
English  sea-rovers  and  seriously  disturbed  economic  conditions 
in  Europe.  England  was  not  slow  to  enter  the  profitable  game 
of  discovery  and  colonization  and  her  national  policy  was  no 
more  altruistic  than  that  of  Spain.  The  ships  of  her  colonies 
might  trade  only  with  the  mother  country  and  then  bring 
nothing  but  raw  materials  to  keep  the  wheels  of  her  growing 
industry  turning.  All  manufacture  in  the  colonies  was  dis- 

1    J.  Jacobs,  "The  Story  of  Geographical  Discovery." 


PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS  21 

countenanced.  This  narrow  policy  cost  England  her  most 
valuable  American  colonies.  Her  navigation  laws,  framed  to 
build  up  her  own  commerce,  destroyed  the  sea-supremacy  of 
the  Dutch  and  she  has  ever  since  remained  mistress  of  the  seas. 
The  policy  of  France  was  no  less  nationalistic  under  the 
guidance  of  Louis  XIV.  and  his  minister  Colbert,  but  she  fell 
behind  in  the  race  for  the  commerce  of  the  world  when  she  lost 
her  foothold  in  India  to  the  British. 

The  nationalistic  spirit  found  expression  in  the  economic 
doctrine  of  the  day  which  was  that  what  one  nation  gained  in 
international  trade,  the  other  lost.  National  development  at 
the  expense  of  one's  neighbor  was  the  principle  of  the  mercan- 
tilist school  of  economists.  But  the  Physiocrats  of  France 
took  a  broader  view  of  the  situation.1  They  saw  that  govern- 
ment restrictions  were  hindering  that  free  outlet  of  products 
which  would  result  in  increased  national  prosperity.  They 
wanted  less  paternalism  and  a  greater  freedom  for  capital. 
Their  doctrine  of  laissez  faire  exercised  a  great  influence  over 
Adam  Smith  and  the  classical  school  of  English  economists  who 
advocated  greater  liberty  in  international  trade  and  prepared 
the  way  for  those  freer  relations  which  the  nations  enjoy  today. 

The  first  great  international  conference  was  the  Congress 
of  Vienna,  in  1815.2  It  was  called  together  to  restore  the 
equilibrium  of  Europe  which  had  been  disturbed  by  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  imperialistic  ambitions  of  Napoleon.  The 
congress  is  interesting  as  showing  the  forces  of  an  old  and  a 
new  order  in  conflict.  The  Rights  of  Man,  declared  by  the 
National  Assembly  in  1789,  were  recognized  by  all  crowned 
heads  to  be  subversive  of  monarchy  and  all  monarchical  in- 
stitutions. The  Convention,  in  1792,  had  thrown  down  the 
gauntlet  to  monarchy  when  it  offered  the  friendship  of  France 


1  Higgs,  "The  Physiocrats." 

2  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  9,  chap.  19. 
W.  A.  Phillips,  "The  Confederation  of  Europe." 


22  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

and  the  support  of  her  arms  to  all  who  should  shake  off  ancient 
tyranny. 

The  monarchs  of  Europe  were  moved  by  a  common  danger 
to  unite  to  restore  the  Most  Christian  King  to  his  throne  and 
prevent  the  spread  of  republican  ideas.  When  Napoleon  had 
made  himself  master  of  France  and  the  most  of  Europe  he 
was  still  looked  upon  as  the  evil  genius  of  revolution  whose 
exorcism  was  necessary  to  the  peace  of  Europe  although  he 
had  out-Caesar ed  Caesar  in  his  imperialistic  ambitions. 

The  Allies  who  gathered  in  Paris  upon  the  first  downfall  of 
Napoleon  arranged  to  meet  some  months  later  in  Vienna  to 
settle  the  territorial  questions  growing  out  of  the  war  and  to 
concert  measures  to  insure  the  future  peace  of  Europe.  A 
congress  called  under  such  conditions  has  neither  the  proper 
perspective  nor  the  judicial  temper  to  deal  with  general  ques- 
tions in  a  large  way.  The  causes  of  the  conflict  bulk  too  large 
and  the  sword  still  makes  weight  in  the  balances  of  justice. 
And  so  the  results  of  the  congress  were  disappointing  even 
from  the  nationalistic  view-point,  for  the  redistribution  of 
territory  was  in  many  cases  not  in  accordance  with  national 
affinities.  The  congress  stripped  France  of  all  the  acquisitions 
of  Napoleon  and  reduced  her  to  ante  bellum  limits. 

The  various  German  states  were  united  into  a  confederation 
which  cemented  the  nationalism  of  that  hitherto  greatly  sub- 
divided realm. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  envoys  seemed  to  be  to  make  the 
best  land  bargain  possible  for  their  particular  governments, 
but  a  few  questions  touching  international  relations  in  general 
received  some  attention.  The  congress  established  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  whole  navigable  course  of  a  river  traversing  two 
or  more  states  is  free  to  all.  Matters  touching  navigation, 
police  and  customs'  regulations  were  left  to  the  riverain  states. 
The  rivers  affected  by  the  act  were  the  Rhine,  Necker,  Main, 
Moselle,  Meuse  and  Scheldt. 


PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS  23 

The  questions  of  the  abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade 
and  the  suppression  of  piracy  were  urged  upon  the  attention 
of  the  congress  by  the  British  envoys  who  reflected  public 
opinion  in  England  on  these  matters.  The  congress  contented 
itself  with  the  declaration  that  the  slave  trade  ought  to  be 
abolished,  but  provided  no  measures  for  carrying  the  decree 
into  effect.  Each  country  was  to  find  and  apply  its  own  remedy. 
Thus  the  whole  point  of  concerted,  coordinated  action,  which 
is  the  very  essence  of  internationalism,  was  missed.  The 
demand  for  the  suppression  of  piracy  was  a  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  the  safety  of  the  seas  was  essential  to  national  pros- 
perity and  that  it  could  be  secured  only  by  the  joint  action  of 
the  great  powers.  But  the  conditions  were  not  yet  ripe  for  a 
full  degree  of  cooperation,  for  national  jealousies  and  sus- 
picions were  sufficient  to  prevent  the  taking  of  any  effective 
steps  to  rid  the  Mediterranean  of  the  Barbary  pirates. 

The  traditions  of  secret  diplomacy  ruled  in  the  congress  and 
its  many  acts  were  in  the  nature  of  treaties  between  the  nations 
concerned.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  the  various  provisions 
were  gathered  together  in  a  final  act  which  was  signed  by 
Austria,  France,  Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Prussia,  Russia  and 
Sweden.  The  rest  of  the  European  powers  were  invited  to 
join  and  all  but  the  Papacy  and  Spain  joined  in  the  ratification. 

Several  points  of  contrast  appear  between  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  and  modern  congresses.  Its  decisions,  while  gathered 
for  purposes  of  convenience  into  a  final  act,  were  actually 
carried  out  by  means  of  private  treaties.  Today  the  decisions 
of  a  conference  are  gathered  into  a  "convention"  which  is 
signed  by  the  plenipotentiaries  and  submitted  to  each  state 
for  its  ratification.  It  is  quite  common  for  a  commission,  or 
other  representative  body,  to  be  created  to  see  that  the  acts 
of  the  conference  are  rendered  effective.  The  Congress  of 
Vienna  did  not  even  provide  for  further  meetings  nor  in  any 
other  way  realize  the  hope  that  had  been  entertained  that  the 


24  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

foundations  were  to  be  laid  for  a  confederation  of  Europe  that 
would  insure  lasting  peace.  But  there  soon  appeared  an  alli- 
ance of  powers  which  took  upon  itself  the  task  of  safe-guarding 
the  peace  of  Europe  and  which  proceeded  to  set  up  a  dictator- 
ship as  absolute  as  had  been  that  of  Napoleon. 

Three  months  after  the  signing  of  the  final  act  three  of  the 
parties  to  the  congress,  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia,  formed 
the  Holy  Alliance  and  declared  it  to  be  their  fixed  resolution 
to  be  guided  in  the  administration  of  their  respective  states 
solely  by  the  precepts  of  the  Christian  religion.1  'The  sole 
principle  of  force,  whether  between  the  said  governments  or 
between  their  subjects,  shall  be  that  of  doing  each  other  reci- 
procal service,  and  of  testifying  by  unalterable  good  will  the 
mutual  affection  with  which  they  ought  to  be  animated,  to 
consider  themselves  as  members  of  one  and  the  same  Christ- 
ian nation."2  All  powers  who  should  accept  these  principles 
were  to  be  "received  with  equal  ardor  and  affection  into  this 
Holy  Alliance."  The  Pope  and  the  Sultan  were  not  invited 
to  join  the  Alliance  and  England  gave  an  evasive  answer. 
The  other  principal  European  states  joined. 

These  noble  declarations,  which  seem  to  breathe  the  Christ- 
ian spirit,  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  the  measures  which 
these  same  three  powers  thought  appropriate  and  necessary  to 
insure  the  tranquility  of  Europe.  Two  months  later  the  Second 
Peace  of  Paris  was  made  necessary  by  the  events  of  the  Hundred 
Days.  The  Allies  restored  the  Bourbon  king  a  second  time 
while  Napoleon  was  sent  to  St.  Helena.  On  the  same  day  that 
the  Second  Peace  was  signed,  November  20,  1815,  Austria, 
Prussia,  Russia  and  Great  Britain  formed  a  secret  alliance  to 
prevent  a  recrudescence  of  the  "same  revolutionary  principles 
which  upheld  the  last  criminal  usurpation."  They  agreed  "to 
renew  their  meetings  at  fixed  periods,  either  under  the  im- 

1  W.  A.  Phillips,  "The  Confederation  of  Europe,"  Chap.  3. 

2  Hertslet,"  The  Map  of  Europe  by  Treaty,"  Vol.  i,  p.  317, 


PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS  25 

mediate  auspices  of  the  sovereigns  themselves,  or  by  their 
respective  ministers,  for  the  purpose  of  consulting  upon  their 
common  interests,  and  for  the  consideration  of  the  measures 
which  at  each  of  these  periods  shall  be  considered  the  most 
salutary  for  the  repose  and  prosperity  of  nations,  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  peace  of  Europe."1 

It  was  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  of  Metternich,  who  dominated 
the  situation,  that  the  peace  of  Europe  could  be  maintained 
only  by  exorcising  the  spirit  of  revolution  which  sat  as  a  spectre 
at  the  council  table  of  every  European  chancellery.  A  revolu- 
tion in  Naples  was  the  occasion  for  calling  an  international 
conference  at  Troppau  in  1820.  The  three  powers,  Austria, 
Prussia  and  Russia  signed  a  protocol  binding  themselves  to 
interfere  in  the  internal  affairs  of  any  European  state  in  case 
a  change  of  government  should  take  place  through  revolution. 
Again  at  Verona,  in  1822,  a  meeting  of  the  Alliance  was  held 
to  consider  intervening  in  the  affairs  of  Spain.  While  Great 
Britain  was  a  party  to  the  secret  treaty  of  November  20,  1815, 
she  did  not  countenance  interference  with  the  internal  affairs 
of  European  states.  Her  policy  was  forcibly  expressed  by 
Canning:  "Our  influence,  if  it  is  to  be  maintained  abroad, 
must  be  secure  in  the  sources  of  strength  at  home;  and  the 
sources  of  that  strength  are  in  sympathy  between  the  people 
and  the  government;  in  the  union  of  public  sentiment  with 
the  public  counsels;  in  the  reciprocal  confidence  and  coopera- 
tion of  the  House  of  Commons  with  the  Crown."2 

In  view  of  the  attitude  of  the  three  powers  that  formed  the 
Holy  Alliance  towards  political  changes  savoring  of  republi- 
canism, it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  Alliance  was  looked 
upon  as  reactionary  in  the  last  degree,  in  spite  of  its  Christian 
protestations.  The  rise  of  internationalism  has  been  closely 
associated  with  the  growth  of  constitutionalism  and  democracy. 


1  Ibid.,  YO!.  I,  p.  375. 

2  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  10,  p.  37. 


26  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

It  depends  upon  the  existence  of  a  citizenry  trained  to  take  an 
interested  part  in  public  affairs  and  capable  of  influencing  the 
councils  of  the  nation  in  its  foreign  policy. 

The  fear  that  the  Holy  Alliance  might  interest  itself  in  an 
attempt  to  restore  to  Spain  her  former  possessions  in  America, 
which  had  declared  their  independence  and  formed  the  Latin- 
American  republics,  had  its  effect  both  north  and  south  of 
Panama.  It  influenced  President  Monroe  to  send  to  Congress, 
December,  1825,  his  message  which  defined  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine. It  led  to  the  project  of  Bolivar  for  an  international 
congress  of  American  States  at  Panama  in  1826.  Although 
the  congress  was  poorly  attended  and  barren  of  results  it  called 
attention  to  the  mutual  interests  of  the  American  republics 
and  was  a  fore-runner  of  the  Pan-American  Union. 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  was  too  early  for  internationalism 
and  too  late  for  such  an  imperialism  as  Napoleon  had  attempted 
to  establish.  Internationalism  cannot  come  by  the  grace  of 
powers  which  rely  upon  the  legitimacy  of  monarchical  insti- 
tutions and  pledge  themselves  to  interfere  in  the  internal 
affairs  of  sovereign  states.  It  must  come  through  free  co- 
operation and  not  by  coercion.  The  cosmopolitanism  of  the 
Napoleonic  regime  was  destined  to  react  towards  a  more  in- 
tense nationalism  which  is  only  beginning  to  give  way  to  the 
larger  conception  of  internationalism.  Nationalism  em- 
phasizes the  rights  of  a  nation,  internationalism  recognizes  the 
duties  and  obligations  of  nations  towards  one  another.  If  the 
moral  man  be  one  who  is  "centered  in  the  sphere  of  common 
duties/'  it  is  becoming  increasingly  clear  that  the  moral  nation 
is  likewise  centered  in  the  sphere  of  international  duties. 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  was  too  early  for  internationalism 
because  the  great  movements  in  the  economic  and  scientific 
world  which  were  to  revolutionize  the  relations  between  nations 
and  furnish  powerful  motives  for  cooperation  were  just  afoot. 
Watt  had  just  improved  the  steam  engine  which  was  destined 


PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS  27 

to  give  a  tremendous  impetus  to  the  industrial  revolution 
which  had  begun  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
with  the  invention  of  the  spinning  jenny  and  the  power  loom. 
In  the  possession  of  a  new  motive  power  industrial  life  was  to 
move  away  from  the  water-ways  of  nature's  primitive  power 
and  form  great  centers  of  population  by  the  water-ways  of 
commerce  and  near  the  stored-up  energy  of  the  mines. 

The^  independent  life  of  the  artizan  was  given  up  for  the 
interdependent  and  cooperative  life  of  the  factory  operative. 
A  surplus  of  manufactured  goods  sought  foreign  markets  and 
demanded  new  commercial  policies  that  would  permit  a  freer 
international  exchange  of  goods.  Nations  began  to  specialize 
in  manufacture  when  they  found  it  profitable  to  produce  in 
abundance  those  goods  which  they  could  produce  to  advantage 
and  exchange  them  for  what  others  could  produce  better  than 
they.  The  manufacturers  and  merchants  looked  to  the  govern- 
ment to  protect  and  facilitate  their  interests  on  all  seas  and  in 
every  land.  The  seas  must  be  freed  from  pirates  and  navi- 
gation must  be  rendered  as  safe  as  possible.  The  status  of 
neutral -ships  and  neutral  goods  in  time  of  war  had  to  be  set- 
tled by  the  nations. 

Eight  years  before  the  powers  gathered  in  Vienna,  the 
launching  of  Fulton's  "Clermont"  had  signalized  the  success- 
ful application  of  steam  to  navigation.  With  the  tremendous 
development  of  steam  navigation  which  followed,  the  necessity 
for  a  scientific  exploration  of  the  sea  was  seen,  and  projects 
for  shortening  sea-routes,  by  such  engineering  tasks  as  the 
Suez  and  Panama  Canals,  brought  the  nations  together  in 
consultation. 

Just  the  year  before  the  Congress  met,  Stephenson's  "Puff- 
ing Billy"  had  ushered  in  the  era  of  railway  development. 
In  the  growth  of  the  railway  systems  of  Europe  which  cross 
many  national  boundaries  there  arose  questions  regarding 
standard  gauge  and  equipment,  through  car  service,  customs' 


28  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

regulations  at  the  boundaries,  all  of  which  called  for  diplo- 
matic settlement  between  the  states  involved. 

What  steam  did  to  improve  the  means  of  locomotion  and 
transportation,  electricity  did  to  facilitate  communication  and 
to  render  the  world  one  great  whispering  gallery.  But  the 
telegraph,  with  its  net-work  of  wires,  raised  international 
questions  touching  the  transmission  of  messages  from  one 
country  to  another.  When  the  submarine  cable  was  made  to 
link  the  continents  measures  had  to  be  adopted  by  the  nations 
to  protect  them  from  malicious  injury.  All  of  these  inventions 
and  improvements,  with  others  that  might  be  mentioned, 
which  received  large  development  in  the  half -century  follow- 
ing the  Congress  of  Vienna,  had  the  effect  of  drawing  the 
nations  nearer  together  and  of  forcing  upon  their  attention 
•  questions  of  mutual  interest. 

The  opening  up  of  the  world  to  commerce,  the  discovery  of 
strange  peoples  and  their  spiritual  need  awakened  the  slum- 
bering conscience  of  the  Christian  Church  to  its  duty  to  "make 
disciples  of  all  nations."  Missionaries  went  in  the  ships  of 
traders  to  every  portion  of  the  globe  preaching  the  Gospel, 
healing  the  sick  and  opening  up  schools  and  colleges.  They 
studied  the  languages  of  the  peoples  whither  they  went,  pre- 
pared grammars  and  dictionaries  and  sometimes  reduced  to 
writing  the  oral  languages  of  illiterate  people.  They  did  much 
to  open  up  the  literature  of  the  East  to  the  scholars  of  the  West 
and  to  make  Western  learning  accessible  to  the  old  civiliza- 
tions of  the  East.  Their  contributions  to  discovery  and  to 
various  branches  of  science,  through  the  examination  and 
recording  of  facts  gathered  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  has 
been  considerable.  The  interest  of  many  in  the  homeland  has 
followed  them  in  their  work  and  not  infrequently  their  govern- 
ments have  interfered  with  native  states  in  their  behalf.  So 
there  have  grown  up  strong  ties  between  nations  very  differ- 
ently circumstanced.  In  times  of  flood  and  famine  and  dis- 
aster hands  have  been  stretched  across  the  sea  in  help.  The 


PREPARATORY  MOVEMENTS  29 

knowledge  of  world-wide  conditions  that  has  been  dissemi- 
nated by  missionary  literature,  the  interest  that  has  been  awak- 
ened in  backward  peoples,  the  racial  prejudices  that  have  been 
softened,  have  all  helped  to  bring  about  conditions  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  a  spirit  of  internationalism. 

While  improved  methods  of  transportation  and  communi- 
cation were  working  such  marked  changes  in  the  relations 
between  the  nations,  and  while  explorers  and  missionaries 
were  engaged  in  opening  up  the  frontiers  of  the  world,  the 
development  of  scientific  thought  was  to  result  in  the  evolu- 
tionary hypothesis.  This  theory,  that  the  world  as  we  know 
it  is  the  result  of  the  orderly  working  of  great  cosmic  laws 
through  an  immense  period  of  time,  acted  as  a  tremendous 
stimulus  to  scientific  activity.  Every  organism,  however 
minute,  was  seen  to  fit  into  the  whole  evolutionary  process  and 
no  fact  in  nature  was  negligible.  The  whole  world  became  a 
laboratory  for  trained  observers.  But  the  value  of  their  work 
lay  in  correlation,  and  this  demanded  the  standardization  of 
the  units  of  measurement  and  a  recognized  nomenclature.  It 
was  necessary  therefore  for  the  scientific  men  of  different 
countries  to  come  together  to  agree  upon  standards  and  com- 
pare the  results  of  their  observations  and  experiments. 

There  was  given  to  the  world  in  the  evolutionary  theory  a 
scientific  basis  for  belief  in  the  organic  unity  of  the  world,  the 
solidarity  of  the  human  race  and  the  existence  of  a  social  order. 
Upon  this  platform  the  scientists  of  the  whole  world  might 
stand  regardless  of  race  or  creed. 

It  is  not  possible  to  fix  any  date  as  marking  the  rise  of  in- 
ternationalism, but  we  can  say  that  its  manifestations  increase 
quite  rapidly  during  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
There  are  several  reasons  why  the  year  1851  is  interesting  as 
a  point  of  departure  in  our  study.  It  was  a  time  of  peace  and 
so  favorable  to  the  growth  of  an  international  spirit.  In  that 
year  the  first  submarine  cable  was  laid  from  Dover  to  Calais, 
an  event  of  much  importance  as  the  first  step  in  the  linking  of 


30  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  continents.  It  was  the  year  of  the  first  of  a  series  of  world's 
fairs  that  were  to  have  a  marked  effect  in  bringing  the  men  of 
different  nations  together  in  friendly  rivalry,  and  in  stimulating 
the  growth  of  international  congresses. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  WORLD'S  FAIR 

We  have  now  to  consider  how  the  men  of  different  nations 
have  been  drawn  together  in  ways  that  have  broadened  their 
narrow  nationalism,  softened  race  prejudices,  developed  the 
spirit  of  toleration,  evoked  admiration,  aroused  emulation  and 
stimulated  friendly  rivalry. 

The  world's  fair  of  modern  times  has  offered  to  the  men 
of  all  nations  the  opportunities  of  association  which  the  ancient 
fair,  or  market,  offered  to  the  men  of  a  narrower  circle.  Although 
the  first  world's  fair  was  held  as  late  as  1851,  its  lineage  may 
be  traced  back  to  those  primitive  periodic  gatherings  which 
were  occasions  for  trade  and  barter. 

Professor  Giddings  has  pointed  out  in  his  lectures  on  soci- 
ology that  from  earliest  times  places  that  have  been  thought 
to  be  rich  in  "mana,"  or  religious  power,  have  been  resorted 
to  by  men  who  wished  to  ally  themselves  with  that  mysteri- 
ous potency.  The  mana  might  be  manifested  in  medicinal 
springs,  in  the  relics  of  a  dead  hero  or  in  some  other  manner. 
In  such  places,  quite  naturally,  religious  festivals  sprang  up, 
and  wherever  men  came  together  at  stated  times  for  religious 
purposes  there  merchants  were  wont  to  resort  to  traffic.  Fairs 
were  held  in  connection  with  the  religious  festivals  at  Delos 
and  Etruria  and  also  during  the  Olympian  games. 

The  fair  grew  to  be  an  institution  which  not  only  afforded 
an  opportunity  for  barter,  in  a  period  when  cities  were  few 
and  far  between  and  travel  dangerous  because  of  robbers,  but 
they  came  to  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  immunities  and  a 
considerable  degree  of  autonomy. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  an  alien  was  considered  to  have  no  rights 
and  a  foreign  merchant  was  subjected  to  innumerable  im- 
posts and  tolls.  "In  France,  before  a  way  was  opened  for 
trade  by  the  fair  of  St.  Denis,  of  which  the  origin  is  found  in 


32  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  reign  of  Dagobert  (A.D.  620),  rights  of  salutaticum,  ponta- 
ticum,  repaticum  and  portulaticwn,  absorbed  one-half  of  a 
foreign  merchant's  goods  upon  their  first  arrival  and  debar- 
cation."1 

The  trader  from  abroad  was  answerable  for  the  debts,  and 
even  the  crimes,  of  all  other  foreigners  of  the  same  nationality. 
If  he  died  abroad  his  property  was  forfeited  to  the  king  or  lord 
of  the  land  where  he  died.2  By  the  laws  of  Alfred  the  Great 
foreign  merchants  were  permitted  to  traffic  at  the  "four  fairs" 
of  the  kingdom,  but  might  not  remain  in  the  country  longer 
than  forty  days.  To  these  intolerable  commercial  conditions 
the.  "free,"  or  chartered,  fairs  of  Europe  afforded  some  relief. 

The  two  most  famous  fairs  in  England  were  those  of  St. 
Bartholomew  and  Stourbridge,  the  privileges  for  each  being 
granted  by  royal  charter  to  pious  houses.  Henry  I  had  a  jester, 
Rayer,  who,  after  the  custom  of  those  days,  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  Rome  during  which  he  received  a  vision  commanding  him 
to  build  a  church.  Knowing  the  pecuniary  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  a  fair,  the  reformed  jester  persuaded  his  sove- 
reign, whom  he  had  oft  amused  with  his  quips  and  jokes,  to 
grant  him  permission  to  hold  an  annual  fair  in  the  priory 
churchyard  at  Smithfield.  The  charter  reads:  "I  grant  also 
my  firm  peace  to  all  persons  coming  to  and  returning  from 
the  Fair  which  is  wont  to  be  celebrated  in  that  place  at  the 
Feast  of  St.  Bartholomew;  and  I  forbid  any  of  the  Royal 
servants  to  implead  any  of  their  persons,  or  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  canons,  on  those  three  days,  to  wit,  the  eve  of  the 
feast,  the  feast  itself  and  the  day  following,  to  levy  dues  upon 
those  going  thither."  This  fair  had  a  continuous  history 
through  seven  centuries,  down  to  1 855  when  it  was  discontinued 
owing  to  the  moral  disorders  which  attended  its  celebration. 

The  Stourbridge  Fair  was  held  at  Cambridge  under  a  char- 
ter granted  in  1 21 1 ,  by  King  John  to  the  Lepers  of  the  Hospital 

1  Henry  Morley,  "Bartholemew  Fair,"  p.  15. 

2  C.  Walford,  "Fairs  Past  and  Present,"  p.  22. 


THE  WORLD'S  FAIR  33 

of  St.  Mary  Magdalen.  It  was  one  of  the  most  noted  in 
the  world  and  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  most 
important  market  for  all  kinds  of  manufactured  goods,  horses, 
wool  and  hops.1  The  great  university  of  Cambridge  shared  in 
its  management  and  profits. 

On  the  continent  the  fairs  of  Champagne  and  Brie  held 
ancient  franchises  which  were  confirmed  in  1349  by  letters 
patent  from  Philip  de  Valois.  Another  celebrated  fair  was 
that  held  at  Frankfort-on-Main  under  charter  from  Charles 
IV.  Leipzig  was  for  centuries  the  seat  of  a  renowned  fair  which 
still  lingers  in  the  annual  book  markets  at  that  place.  The 
great  fair  at  Nijni  Novgorod,  in  Russia,  has  had  a  continuous 
history  from  the  fourteenth  century  to  the  present  day. 

The  privileges  granted  these  "free  fairs"  in  England  and  on 
the  continent  were  much  the  same  and  proved  a  boon  to  the 
merchants  in  an  age  when  the  alien  was  deemed  proper  prey. 
The  sovereign  granted  his  "firm  peace"  during  the  fair  and 
private  feuds  were  suspended.  Merchants  were  granted  ex- 
emption from  the  usual  imposts  and  were  free  from  arrest  for 
debt  or  any  civil  process  not  arising  from  transactions  in  the 
market. 

The  fair  enjoyed  a  large  degree  of  autonomy,  for  during  its 
continuance  the  mayor  surrendered  all  jurisdiction  to  a  special 
court  which  had  its  own  police  officers.  In  England  this  was 
called  the  "Piepowder  Court,"  and  to  it  the  "dustyfoot,"  as 
the  merchant  was  appropriately  called,  could  bring  his  disputes 
for  immediate  adjudication  before  he  trekked  to  another  fair. 
A  staff  of  notaries  was  on  hand  to  attest  bargains,  and  the  seal 
of  the  market  constituted  valid  title  to  the  goods  purchased, 
even  though  the  vendor  might  not  have  come  by  them  honestly. 

Some  efforts  were  made  towards  regulation  and  standardi- 
zation. In  France  they  had  a  board  of  inspectors,  called  prud' 
hommes,  who  passed  upon  the  quality  of  goods  exposed  for 

Cunningham,    "The  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce,"  p.  164. 


34  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

sale  and  who  had  the  right  to  confiscate  any  that  were  found 
to  be  fraudulent  or  below  grade.  They  also  tested  the  weights 
and  measures  used.  In  fact  the  standard  used  for  weighing 
gold  and  silver  in  the  fair  at  Troyes,  in  France,  became  ac- 
cepted generally  and  has  survived  to  the  present  day  as  Troy 
weight. 

These  fairs  are  interesting  in  our  study  as  attempting  to 
establish  conditions  in  these  temporary  international  centers 
which  the  nations,  through  cooperative  effort,  are  endeavor- 
ing to  make  world-wide,  that  is,  the  standardization  of  weights, 
measures  and  money,  equitable  commercial  laws,  free  and  fair 
competition,  world-wide  opportunities  for  trade,  safety  for 
the  transportation  of  goods  and,  finally,  peace. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  fairs  assisted  materially 
in  a  leavening  process  which  tended  to  break  down  local  preju- 
dices and  promote  social  homogeneity.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  in  France  they  afforded  the  fertile  soil  into  which  the 
seeds  of  republicanism  were  cast  by  the  merchants  from  the 
free  cities  of  Italy,  and  that  the  principles  which  took  root 
there  found  fruition  in  the  French  Revolution  and  the  Re- 
public of  France.1 

The  free  fairs  we  have  been  considering  were  primarily  for 
the  purposes  of  trade,  although  the  amusement  feature  came 
eventually  to  be  very  prominent.  The  denunciations  of  the 
clergy  show  that  the  problem  of  "midway"  attractions  is  not 
peculiar  to  modern  fairs. 

Next  in  line  of  descent — or  ascent,  if  you  please — came  the 
industrial  exposition  in  which  the  primary  purpose  was  not 
immediate  sale,  but  the  exhibition  of  the  products  of  various 
industries  with  a  view  to  stimulating  manufacturers  and  arti- 
zans  to  perfect  their  processes  and  wares  through  comparison 
and  competition.  Doubtless  the  hope  of  increased  business 
was  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  competing  exhibitors.  Many 

1    J.  T.  Brent,  "Genoa,"  p.  106. 


THE  WORLD'S  FAIR  35 

of  these  exhibitions  became  national  in  their  scope  before  they 
became  international.  "Nationalism/*  says  Viscount  Hal- 
dane,1  "is  the  necessary  complement  of  internationalism  in 
any  true  sense.  Either  without  the  other  becomes  perverted 
and  inhuman,  and  is  a  denial  of  great  spiritual  principles/' 
It  may  be  said  with  equal  truth  that  nationalism  logically 
precedes  internationalism  which  completes  the  universalizing 
cycle  in  all  social  movements. 

In  1791,  when  the  warehouses  of  the  Gobelin  and  Sevres 
industries  were  overstocked  and  the  workmen  on  the  verge 
of  starvation,  Marquis  d'Aveze  conceived  the  idea  of  collect- 
ing some  of  the  choicest  products  of  these  looms  and  kilns  in 
the  Chateau  of  St.  Cloud  in  the  hopes  of  stimulating  their 
sale.2  The  plan  was  frustrated  through  the  promulgation  at 
that  time  of  the  decree  of  the  Directory  banishing  the  nobility 
from  France.  On  his  return  to  Paris  the  following  year,  the 
marquis  arranged  a  more  extensive  collection  in  the  Maison 
d'Orsay,  in  Paris.  The  government  saw  the  advantages  of 
such  an  exhibition  and  proceeded  to  erect  a  special  building 
upon  the  Champs  de  Mars  to  house  the  first  French  Exhibition. 
The  plan  then  adopted  of  awarding  prizes  to  competitors  by 
the  decision  of  a  jury  has  been  followed  ever  since  in  all  ex- 
positions. 

Following  the  success  of  the  French,  many  industrial  ex- 
hibitions were  held  in  other  countries  with  varying  degrees  of 
success.  It  has  been  said  that  "these  national  expositions 
marked  the  end  of  the  system  of  trade  guilds  and  carefully 
guarded  trade  secrets,  and  illustrated  the  openness  of  ideas, 
the  search  for  new  methods  and  the  introduction  of  improve- 
ments."3 The  idea  that  these  national  exhibitions  would  lead 
to  others  of  international  scope  did  not  early  take  possession 
of  the  imagination  of  statesmen.  The  relations  between  the 


R.  B.  Haldane,  "Universities  and  National  Life." 
James  Samuelson,  "Civilization  of  Our  Day,"  p.  305. 
Current  Literature  29:259. 


36  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

two  great  industrial  nations,  France  and  England,  could  not 
be  said  to  have  been  the  most  cordial  when,  in  1798,  a  gold 
medal  was  offered  in  France  to  the  man  who  would  deal  the 
heaviest  blow  to  English  trade. 

However,  in  1833,  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes,  president  of  the 
Societe  f  Emulation  d' Abbeville,  proposed  that  the  French  ex- 
hibitions be  thrown  open  to  exhibitors  from  abroad.  But  the 
French  manufacturers  were  not  sure  enough  of  themselves.1 
Again  in  1849,  M.  Tourret,  Minister  of  Commerce,  made  the 
same  suggestion  and  circularized  the  manufacturers  to  ascer- 
tain their  opinion.  The  replies  were  so  largely  unfavorable 
that  no  further  attempt  was  made  at  that  time. 

It  fell  to  England  to  hold  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  world's 
fairs  which  have  done  much  toward  bringing  together  the 
men  of  different  nations  in  such  a  way  that  their  national 
egotism  has  been  modified,  their  admiration  for  the  skill  of 
others  has  been  aroused,  a  spirit  of  toleration  has  been  pro- 
moted and  they  have  returned  home  to  develop  with  greater 
confidence  and  by  improved  methods  the  resources  of  their 
own  countries. 

The  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  an  auspicious 
time  for  the  holding  of  the  first  international  exposition.  The 
doors  of  the  Temple  of  Janus  were  closed.  The  new  industrial 
era  brought  about  by  the  utilization  of  steam  power  in  manu- 
facturing processes  had  begun.  The  new  uses  to  which  iron 
was  being  put  were  illustrated  in  the  framework  of  the  Crystal 
Palace  in  which  the  exhibition  was  housed.  Electricity  was 
being  tamed  to  do  the  bidding  of  man.  Every  advance  made 
in  the  utilization  of  the  forces  of  nature  was  scanned  with 
interest.  Progress  lay  in  comparison,  adaption  and  improve- 
ment. 

It  was  the  cherished  plan  of  Prince  Albert,  the  Royal  Con- 
sort of  Queen  Victoria,  to  hold  a  fair  in  which  all  the  powers 
would  be  invited  to  participate.  England  was  at  peace  with 

Rapport  General  de  V Exposition  Universelle  de  1889. 


THE  WORLD'S  FAIR  37 

the  world  and  was,  of  all  nations,  in  the  best  position  to  invite 
the  cooperation  of  other  governments  in  a  great  peace  jubilee 
which  should  mark  the  advance  of  the  world  up  to  that  time 
and  be  prophetic  of  the  drawing  together  of  all  peoples  in  a 
spirit  of  equality  and  fraternity. 

The  first  international  exhibition  was  held  in  London  in 
1851.  England's  invitation  to  participate  in  the  exposition 
was  accepted  by  France,  Belgium,  the  Zollverein,  Austria, 
Russia,  the  United  States,  Switzerland,  Spain,  Italy,  Sicily, 
Tuscany,  Portugal,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Turkey,  Hol- 
land and  Greece.  The  exhibits  were  divided  into  four  classes; 
raw  materials,  machinery,  manufactures  and  sculpture.  In 
machinery  England  excelled,  but  in  artistic  work  France  easily 
led,  and  the  French  exhibitors  returned  home  well  satisfied 
with  their  successes,  with  more  cordial  feelings  towards  their 
old  trade  rivals  and  determined  to  hold  an  international 
exhibition  of  their  own. 

The  first  International  Paris  Exposition  was  held  on  the 
Champs  de  Mars  in  1855.  At  the  second  Paris  Exposition,  in 
1867,  a  new  feature  was  introduced  by  the  commissioner  general 
of  the  fair,  M.  LePlay,  whose  interest  in  the  social  conditions 
of  the  working  classes  had  led  him  to  make  one  of  the  earliest 
attempts  at  a  scientific  study  of  the  standard  of  living.  His 
book,  "Les  Ouvriers  Europeens,"  was  a  careful  study  of  the 
budgets  of  working-men's  families.  His  interest  in  social 
problems  led  him  to  attempt  to  bring  together  in  conference 
during  the  exposition,  those  interested  in  the  material,  in- 
tellectual and  moral  welfare  of  mankind.  Conferences  were 
arranged  for  those  interested  in  remedying  improvidence  and 
poverty,  in  the  prevention  of  crime,  in  improving  the  condition 
of  the  working  classes,  in  provident  savings,  in  alliance  be- 
tween those  engaged  in  agriculture  and  manufacture,  in  better 
housing,  in  the  condition  of  women  workers.  These  topics 
are  of  interest  as  showing  the  social  trend  in  the  early  efforts 
to  promote  cooperative  action  between  the  nations. 


38  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

There  was,  at  this  fair,  an  exhibition  of  weights,  measures 
and  money  with  a  view  to  preparing  the  way  for  a  simplifi- 
cation in  the  reports  of  international  commerce  and  exchange. 
If  the  earlier  expositions  were  largely  for  the  display  of 
products  of  the  looms,  workshops  and  ateliers,  the  idea  was 
soon  conceived  of  making  them  more  illustrative  of  the  general 
life  of  the  people.  The  chief  aim  of  the  international  exposi- 
tion at  Vienna,  in  1873,  was  to  collect  examples  of  every  human 
industry,  showing  how  the  producers  themselves  lived  and 
worked.  Great  prominence  was  given  to  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion and  intellectual  culture  and  the  system  of  Austrian  educa- 
tion was  exhibited  in  detail. 

In  connection  with  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878  a  definite 
attempt  was  made  to  stimulate  the  meeting  of  international 
congresses  on  various  subjects  and  the  success  was  such  as  to 
warrant  the  establishment  of  a  policy  which  has  continued 
through  succeeding  fairs.  The  effect  of  this  policy  in  stimu- 
lating the  gathering  of  international  congresses  may  be  seen 
in  the  chart  on  page  74  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  largest 
number  of  congresses  have  been  held  in  the  years  of  the  great 
world's  fairs. 

When  the  French  government  issued  an  invitation  to  the 
nations  of  the  world  to  participate  in  an  international  exposi- 
tion in  1 889  which  should  illustrate  a  century  of  progress  since 
the  French  Revolution,  announcement  was  made  of  con- 
gresses upon  a  wide  variety  of  topics.  There  were  fifteen 
divisions,  embracing  belle  lettres,  beaux-arts,  history  and 
archaeology,  mathematics,  physical  and  chemical  sciences, 
natural  sciences,  geography,  political  economy  and  legisla- 
tion, hygiene,  social  economy,  education,  civil  engineering  and 
public  work,  agriculture,  industry  and  commerce. 

During  the  exposition  sixty-nine  international  congresses 
were  held,  addressed  by  eminent  speakers  and  experts.  But 
the  results  were  disappointing.  The  congresses  were  poorly 
attended  and  a  lack  of  interest  was  shown  by  the  visitors  who 


THE  WORLD'S  FAIR  39 

were  intent  upon  amusement  and  entertainment.  The  failure 
of  this  attempt  was  probably  partly  due  to  a  lack  of  careful 
preliminary  planning  and  partly  because  of  the  attitude  of 
several  of  the  European  powers  who  declined  to  participate 
in  the  exhibition  from  an  unwillingness  to  seem  to  countenance 
the  radicalism  associated  with  the  French  Revolution  which 
the  fair  was  intended  to  commemorate. 

When  preparations  were  being  made  for  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition  in  Chicago,  held  in  1893,  it  was  thought  wise 
to  plan  for  a  more  widely  representative  assemblage  of  states- 
men, jurists,  financiers,  scientists,  literati,  teachers  and  theo- 
logians than  had  ever  yet  been  convened.  In  sending  out  a 
prospectus  for  such  a  series  of  congresses  the  management 
said:  "The  benefit  of  such  a  parliament  of  nations  would  be 
higher  and  more  conducive  to  the  welfare  of  mankind  than 
those  which  would  flow  from  the  national  exposition,  though 
it  would  not  be  easy  to  exaggerate  the  powerful  impetus  that 
will  be  given  by  the  latter  to  commerce,  and  all  the  arts  by 
which  toil  is  lightened,  the  fruits  of  labor  increased  and  the 
comforts  of  life  augmented.  For  such  a  congress,  convened 
under  circumstances  so  auspicious,  would  surpass  all  previous 
efforts  to  bring  about  a  real  fraternity  of  nations  and  unite 
the  enlightened  people  of  the  whole  earth  in  a  general  coopera- 
tion for  the  attainment  of  the  great  ends  for  which  human 
society  is  organized."1 

The  World's  Auxiliary  Congress,  as  this  project  was  called, 
received  recognition  by  Congress,  May  25,  1892,  and  diplo- 
matic and  consular  agents  were  directed  to  invite  the  coopera- 
tion of  all  countries.  The  whole  range  of  human  activity  and 
interest  would  seem  to  have  been  covered  by  the  topics  sug- 
gested for  discussion.  The  work  was  carefully  systematized 
and  subdivided.  More  than  2 1 0  working  committees  of  organi- 
zation were  formed  with  a  local  membership  of  1,600  and  a 
non-resident  membership  in  advisory  councils  of  15,000. 

1    World's  Columbian  Exposition:  Report  of  President,  Appendix  A. 


40  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

During  the  time  of  the  fair  1,245  sessions  were  held,  with 
5,974  writers  and  speakers  and  a  total  attendance  of  over 
700,000.1 

A  project  was  successfully  carried  through  which  would  have 
seemed  impossible  to  the  French  government  which  rules  out 
the  seemingly  fatally  divisive  subjects  of  politics  and  religion. 
A  World's  Parliament  of  Religions  was  held  which  was  dis- 
approved of  at  the  time  by  many  good  people  who  had  the 
feeling  that  it  was  lowering  Christianity  to  the  plane  of  all 
the  other  ethnic  religions.  But  'there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  better  understanding  of  the  other  great  religions  which 
resulted  from  the  discussions  did  much  to  promote  that  re- 
ligious tolerance  which  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  inter- 
national spirit. 

Ever  since  that  parliament  it  has  been  seen  with  growing 
clearness  that  the  failure  of  other  ethnic  religions  has  been  a 
social  failure,  as  evidenced  by  caste,  the  degradation  of  woman 
and  general  stagnation.  As  one  religion  after  another  has  been 
pronounced  a  failure  because  of  its  unsocial  results  it  has  be- 
come apparent  that  Christianity  must  offer  itself  to  the  same 
tests.  The  ideal  which  she  must  hold  aloft  is  the  full  and 
normal  development  of  the  individual  as  a  member  of  a  social 
order  which  has  both  human  and  divine  relationships. 

When  we  come  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900  we  find  the 
fullest  expansion  of  the  international  congress  as  an  adjunct 
of  the  world's  fair.  In  spite  of  the  disappointments  of  1889, 
greater  preparations  than  ever  were  made  that  the  congresses 
in  1900  might  record  the  progress  of  thought  during  the  then 
closing  century.  M.  Gabriel,  Engineer-in-chief  of  Bridges  and 
Roads,  who  had  attended  the  Columbian  Exposition  in  1893, 
and  had  doubtless  there  received  many  ideas  of  preparatory 
organization,  was  director  of  the  congresses.2  The  work  was 

1  Ibid.,  General  Report  on  Auxiliary. 

2  Exposition  Universelle  Internationale  de  1900:  Rapport  General  Adminis- 

tratif  et  Technique,  Vol.  VI. 


THE  WORLD'S  FAIR  41 

divided  among  twelve  sub-committees.  The  congresses  were 
held  under  the  patronage  of  the  French  government  who  dis- 
claimed, however,  all  responsibility  for  opinions  expressed  or 
resolutions  passed. 

The  very  large  number  of  122  international  congresses  was 
held  and  their  deliberations  published.  The  wide  range  of 
topics  considered  covered  twelve  general  divisions  as  follows: 
education,  arts,  mathematical  sciences,  physical  sciences, 
natural  sciences,  medical  and  pharmacal  sciences,  mechanics, 
agriculture,  political  economy,  legislation  and  statistics,  social 
science,  colonization  and  geography,  industry  and  commerce.1 

A  different  plan  of  congresses  was  adopted  by  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  at  St.  Louis  in 
1904.  The  week  beginning  September  19  was  devoted  to  the 
meetings  of  an  International  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
designed  to  show  the  "pro§ress  of  man  since  the  Louisiana 
Purchase."  The  whole  realm  of  human  knowledge  and  activity 
was  reviewed  under  the  following  classification:  (1)  Norma- 
tive Sciences,  (2)  Historical  Science,  (3)  Physical  Science, 
(4)  Mental  Science,  (5)  Utilitarian  Sciences,  (6)  Social  Regu- 
lation, (7)  Social  Culture.  Under  these  general  heads  there 
were  arranged  24  departments  and  1 28  special  sections.  Mon- 
day and  Tuesday  were  devoted  to  addresses  by  American 
scholars  upon  the  seven  general  divisions  and  the  twenty- 
four  departments,  aiming  to  present  the  fundamental  con- 
ceptions and  methods  of  each  and  the  progress  during  the 
century.  Beginning  on  Wednesday  there  were  two  addresses 
in  each  of  the  128  sections  followed  by  ten-minute  papers. 
The  speakers  were  chosen  equally  from  American  and  Euro- 
pean scientists  and  experts.  The  proceedings  of  the  Con- 
gress were  published  in  eight  volumes.2 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  definite  effort  was  made  in  suc- 
cessive world's  fairs  to  associate  those  of  all  nations  who  are 


1  Ibid.,  Pieces  Annexes. 

2  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Vol.  I. 


42  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

interested  in  economic,  scientific,  moral  and  religious  progress 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  of 
coordinating  the  efforts  of  various  organizations  and  of  pro- 
moting the  solidarity  of  the  race.  Whatever  may  be  the 
future  of  the  world's  fair  it  has,  without  doubt,  stimulated  the 
rise  of  internationalism.  It  has  liberalized  and  widened  the 
interests  of  men.  A  narrow  provincialism  is  sure  to  have  some 
of  its  adhesions  broken  by  the  stretching  process  experienced 
in  attending  an  exhibition  of  the  cleverness  and  skill  of  people 
once  thought  of  only  with  contempt. 

It  is  interesting  to  consider  that  as  the  free  fairs  of  feudal 
Europe  made  international  trade  possible,  so  their  successors, 
the  world's  fairs,  have  contributed  very  largely  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  entente  cordiale  between  the  workers  and  think- 
ers of  the  various  nations. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES 

The  significance  of  international  conferences  and  congresses 
in  the  march  of  events  which  is  bringing  the  nations  of  the 
earth  en  rapport  has  not  been  fully  grasped  by  many.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  with  some  impatience  that  they  have  often 
been  barren  of  direct,  visible  results.  Many  have  been  dis- 
posed to  look  upon  them  as  mere  "talk-fests,"  affording  en- 
joyable junkets  for  those  who  were  fortunate  enough  to  be 
appointed  as  delegates,  but  productive  of  little  permanent 
good. 

Impatience  is  a  characteristic  of  an  age  in  which  we  are 
accustomed  to  see  material  undertakings  of  stupendous  pro- 
portions accomplished  in  record-breaking  time.  The  Chinese 
proverb,  "Through  patience  the  mulberry  leaf  is  changed 
into  satin,"  has  no  place  in  the  philosophy  of  modern  business. 
Present-day  organization  and  efficiency  methods  are  concerned 
with  cutting  short  the  route  between  the  mulberry  leaf  and 
the  satin. 

In  an  interesting  chapter  on  the  Age  of  Discussion,1  Walter 
Bagehot  has  pointed  out  that  the  change  from  an  age  of  status 
to  one  of  choice  was  first  made  in  those  states  in  which  govern- 
ment was,  to  a  growing  extent,  a  government  by  discussion. 

Contentment  with  the  status  quo  results  in  stagnation.  As 
long  as  free  discussion  can  be  suppressed,  privilege,  which 
battens  upon  the  submissive  and  servile,  is  secure.  Especially 
is  this  true  when  religious  sentiment  supports  the  pretentions 
of  those  who  wield  the  power. 

4    Walter  Bagehot,  "Physics  and  Politics,"  p.  163. 


44  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

It  is  hopefully  indicative  of  the  smouldering  fires  of  social 
righteousness  when  a  prophet  arises  with  a  burning  message 
directed  against  those  who  "join  house  to  house,  that  lay  field 
to  field,  till  there  be  no  place,  that  they  may  be  placed  alone 
in  the  midst  of  the  earth."1  But  it  is  more  hopeful  of  a  better 
social  status  when  men  are  free  to  discuss  and  criticize  things 
as  they  are  and  work  for  things  as  they  ought  to  be. 

In  the  period  before  the  rise  of  internationalism  Machia- 
vellian diplomacy  was  the  rule  and  the  relations  between 
states  was  largely  determined  by  dynastic  questions,  in  the 
settlement  of  which  blood  and  treasure  were  often  poured  out 
in  ineffectual  libations.  Today,  citizens  are  not  only  free  to 
discuss  matters  pertaining  to  foreign  relations,  to  question 
the  rightfulness  of  the  status  quo,  but  are,  to  an  increasing 
degree,  taking  part  in  official  or  private  capacity  in  hastening 
the  rapprochement  between  the  nations. 

If  it  be  true,  as  Bagehot  affirms,  that  "tolerance  is  learned  in 
discussion,  and,  as  history  shows,  is  only  so  learned,"  the  im- 
portance of  conferences  and  congresses  in  which  the  men  of 
different  nations  discuss  matters  of  common  interest  from 
different  angles  of  vision,  is  very  great,  aside  from  their  im- 
mediate results.  As  to  the  practical  results,  and  what  they 
indicate  touching  the  growth  of  a  world  unity,  a  review  of 
the  principal  ones  may  suggest  an  answer. 

International  congresses  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two 
classes:  (1)  those  which  are  composed  of  diplomatic  repre- 
sentatives—usually spoken  of  as  "conferences;"  (2)  those 
made  up  of  private  citizens  without  government  appoint- 
ment. There  are  a  few  congresses  that  are  composed  of  both 
public  and  private  members,  but  it  has  not  been  thought 
necessary  to  classify  these  separately.  The  official  inter- 
national conferences  will  be  considered  in  this  chapter,  and 
the  unofficial  congresses  in  the  next. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  45 

The  convening  of  an  official  conference  may  arise  in  several 
ways.  The  close  of  a  war  often  leaves  territorial  and  other 
questions  to  be  settled  by  a  conference  of  powers.  This  was 
the  case  in  1815,  when  the  Congress  of  Vienna  was  convened 
at  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  in  1856,  when  the 
Conference  of  Paris  was  made  necessary  by  the  Crimean  War. 
In  times  of  peace  the  initiative  is  generally  taken  by  some 
sovereign  who  invites  other  powers  to  a  conference  upon  some 
topic  of  general  interest.  It  was  upon  the  invitation  of  Czar 
Nicholas  II  that  the  First  Peace  Conference  was  held.  Oc- 
casions may  arise  which  make  such  conferences  necessary,  as 
when  the  phylloxera  was  destroying  the  vines  of  Europe  in 
1878,  or  when  the  spread  of  a  plague  threatens  the  nations. 

International  cooperation  may  arise  as  the  result  of  the 
labors  of  one  man.  This  was  the  case  when  a  Californian, 
Mr.  Lubin,  dissatisfied  with  the  price  of  some  grain  he  had 
sold,  started  an  investigation  as  to  what  regulated  the  price 
of  wheat.  He  became  convinced  of  the  need  of  international 
cooperation  in  agricultural  matters  and  interested  in  his  pro- 
ject the  king  of  Italy,  who  invited  the  powers  to  send  dele- 
gates to  the  International  Institute  of  Agriculture  which  met 
for  the  first  time  in  Rome  in  1905.1 

It  is  usual  in  issuing  an  invitation  for  a  conference  to  state 
the  specific  subjects  which  the  delegates  are  to  consider,  that 
intelligent  discussion  and  action  may  follow.  In  the  conference 
the  diplomatic  representatives  of  all  the  sovereign  states  stand 
upon  an  equality  and  the  vote  of  each  nation  counts  one. 
Unanimity  is  required  for  the  adoption  of  any  measure.  The 
measures  adopted  are  collected  into  a  "convention"  which  is 
signed  by  the  envoys  in  behalf  of  their  governments.  It  is 
then  submitted  to  each  state  for  its  ratification  and  a  date  is 
usually  set  for  the  deposit  of  the  ratifications  with  a  designated 

1    World's  Work,  12:8021— 3. 


46  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

official,  who  is  usually  the  foreign  secretary  of  the  state  where 
the  conference  was  held.  When  the  convention  has  been 
ratified  it  has  the  force  of  international  law  as  affects  the  re- 
lations of  the  agreeing  nations.  It  is  quite  customary  to 
invite  such  other  nations  as  are  interested  in  the  measure,  and 
who  were  not  represented  at  the  conference,  to  sign  and  ratify 
the  convention. 

In  many  cases  an  international  bureau,  or  some  other  form 
of  organization,  is  established  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of 
the  act  and  to  be  the  intermediary  between  the  nations  in 
this  matter.  There  have  grown  up  some  17  international 
official  unions  with  permanent  bureaus  and  definite  head- 
quarters. The  expense  for  the  maintenance  of  these  bureaus 
is  apportioned  among  the  participating  states.  In  1913  the 
total  budget  for  these  international  unions  was  $936,000. 

Since  1850  official  conferences  have  been  held  upon  more 
than  fifty  subjects  of  more  or  less  general  interest,  aside  from 
those  called  to  settle  questions  arising  out  of  war.  In  some 
cases  only  one  conference  has  been  held  upon  the  same  sub- 
ject, but  in  others  as  many  as  twelve  have  been  held  in  suc- 
ceeding years.  In  each  of  these  conferences  the  representa- 
tives of  from  three  to  fifty  nations  and  principalities  have 
taken  part. 

The  subjects  which  have  engaged  the  attention  of  the  con- 
gresses will  be  treated  as  indicating  along  what  lines  inter- 
dependence has  been  recognized  and  co  operative  action  deemed 
desirable.  These  ought  to  throw  light  upon  the  rapprochement 
of  the  nations  and  suggest  the  way  in  which  the  federation  of 
the  world  is  likely  to  be  achieved. 

The  subjects  which  have  been  treated  in  official  conferences 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  those  relating  to  inter- 
national administration,  and  (2)  those  relating  to  international 
legislation. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  47 


I.    INTERNATIONAL  ADMINISTRATION 

1.  Sanitation.1  The  protection  of  the  public  health  is 
readily  recognized  as  a  plain  duty  of  the  state.  Health  con- 
siderations can  be  urged  as  valid  grounds  for  the  exercise  of 
the  police  powers  of  the  state  when  moral  grounds  are  ques- 
tioned. Much  of  the  social  legislation  of  today  has  been 
secured  on  the  plea  of  preserving  the  public  health,  particu- 
larly that  of  women  and  children. 

When  medical  science  had  discovered  the  means  by  which 
diseases  and  plagues,  which  formerly  decimated  the  popula- 
tion, were  communicated  and  spread,  it  became  apparent  that 
the  health  of  each  nation  depended  upon  the  health  of  the 
rest  of  the  world.  An  Atlantis,  set  in  the  midst  of  a  sea  never 
whitened  by  foreign  sails,  would  have  no  need  to  dread  a 
plague  brought  from  afar.  Not  so  fortunate  is  the  situation 
of  the  nation  of  modern  times  whose  harbors  are  busy  with 
the  craft  of  all  peoples,  or  whose  frontiers  are  crossed  in  a 
dozen  places  by  railroads.  The  grim  specter  of  Asiatic  cholera 
or  bubonic  plague  may  lurk  between  the  decks  of  a  steamer  at 
the  wharf.  Conditions  of  filth  in  Asia  may  be  a  menace  to 
the  health  of  England,  trachoma  in  Italy  may  endanger  the 
eyesight  of  Americans  who  have  never  left  their  native  shores. 

The  interdependence  of  nations  received  an  early  recogni- 
tion in  the  concerted  measures  taken  to  establish  sanitary 
control.  In  1851  and  1859  diplomatic  conferences  were  held 
in  Paris  to  discuss  means  for  preventing  the  spread  of  inter- 
national epidemics. 

The  dread  of  Asiatic  cholera  brought  thirteen  European 
powers  together  in  Constantinople  in  1866  in  an  International 
Sanitary  Conference.  The  next  meeting,  at  Vienna  in  1874, 
was  participated  in  by  eight  more  nations  and  a  permanent 

1    Proces-verbaux  de  la  Conference  Sanitaire  Internationale  de  {Rome,  1885; 

de  Paris,  1894;  de  Venise,  1897. 
Z.  I.  Loutfi,  "La  Politique  Sanitaire  Internationale" 


48  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

international  commission  was  formed.  A  fifth  conference  in 
Washington  in  1881,  found  several  of  the  American  republics 
in  line,  as  were  also  Japan  and  Hawaii.  At  the  twelfth  con- 
ference in  Rome,  1907,  the  twenty-four  participating  countries 
created  the  International  Office  of  Public  Health,  with  head- 
quarters in  Paris. 

Since  1881  sanitary  control  over  the  traffic  passing  through 
the  Suez  Canal  has  been  vested  in  the  Consell  Sanitaire  Mari- 
time et  Quarantenaire  d*  Egypt  composed  of  delegates  from  six- 
teen European  nations. 

In  1901  the  Pan-American  Congress  established  an  inter- 
national sanitary  bureau  for  the  American  republics,  and  in 
1905  the  Pan-American  Sanitary  Union  was  formed  and  qua- 
rantine regulations,  binding  upon  the  American  states,  were 
adopted.  The  ideal  hoped  for  is  a  time  when  the  hygienic 
conditions  in  each  country  will  be  such  that  quarantine  will 
be  unnecessary.1 

2.  Standardization.  As  the  relations  between  the  nations 
have  become  more  and  more  intimate,  the  inconveniences 
arising  from  various  standards  of  weights,  measures,  money 
and  time  have  been  increasingly  felt  and  efforts  have  been 
made  to  establish  universal  standards. 

A  diplomatic  conference  on  weights  and  measures  was  held 
in  Paris  in  1875,  in  which  twenty-one  nations  took  part,  four 
more  subsequently  adopting  the  convention.  An  international 
bureau  of  weights  and  measures  was  formed  with  headquarters 
in  the  park  of  St.  Cloud,  near  Paris.  The  metric  system  has 
been  adopted  by  twenty-four  states,  while  fourteen  more 
recognize  it  along  with  some  other  system,  the  United  States 
being  in  the  latter  class.2 

The  determination  of  a  uniform  system  for  marking  the 
world's  time  involved  international  agreement  upon  a  prime 

1  Transactions  of  the  Second  International  Sanitary  Conference  of  the  American. 

Republics. 

2  Treaties,  Conventions,  International  Acts,  Protocols  and  Agreements  between 

the  United  States  and  Other  Powers,  Gov't  Printing  Office,  Vol.  2,  p.  1924 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  49 

meridian.  An  international  conference  was  invited  to  meet 
in  Washington  in  1884  to  decide  the  question.  The  French 
delegates  urged  either  the  adoption  of  the  meridian  of  Paris 
or  some  neutral  meridian.  But  the  necessity  of  deciding  upon 
a  meridian  passing  through  some  observatory,  and  the  fact 
that  the  Paris  observatory  was  located  in  the  heart  of  the  city, 
together  with  the  widespread  custom  of  reckoning  east  and 
west  from  the  meridian  passing  through  the  park  at  Green- 
wich, led  to  the  adoption  of  the  latter  as  the  prime  meridian. 
There  was  only  one  dissenting  vote,  that  of  Domingo — 
France  and  Brazil  refraining  from  voting.  Twenty-six  nations 
took  part.1 

Upon  the  invitation  of  France  a  Conference  Internationale 
de  I'heure  was  held  in  Paris  in  1912,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes,  which  was  attended  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  sixteen  states.  The  purpose  of  the  conference 
was  to  adopt  uniform  methods  for  signalling  the  hour  in  the 
most  exact  way  possible  from  designated  centers.  The  use 
of  wireless  telegraphy  for  this  purpose  was  advocated.  By 
these  means  precision  in  the  regulation  of  time  by  land  and 
sea  will  be  secured.  A  Commission  Internationale  de  Iheure 
was  created  with  a  permanent  bureau  in  Paris.  The  question 
of  radiotelegraphic  warnings  of  icebergs  and  other  dangers  to 
navigation  was  also  considered.2 

The  variety  of  money  current  in  the  different  countries  has 
led  to  monetary  conferences  and  unions.  In  1865  the  Latin 
Monetary  Union  was  formed  by  France,  Switzerland,  Italy 
and  Greece.  Ten  years  later  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark 
formed  the  Scandinavian  Monetary  Union.  Four  attempts 
were  made  in  1867,  1878,  1881  and  1892,  at  international 
monetary  conferences  participated  in  by  the  leading  powers, 
to  establish  a  fixed  relation  between  gold  and  silver,  but  with- 
out success.3 

1     Science  4:376 

!    La  Vie  Internationale,  Tome  II,  p.  43. 

3    Henry  B.  Russell,  "International  Monetary  Conferences." 


50  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  Central  American  Union  established,  in  1 909,  a  uniform 
monetary  system  and  adopted  the  metric  system  of  weights 
and  measures.1 

The  unification  of  formulae  for  powerful  drugs  in  the  in- 
terests of  public  health  and  safety  engaged  the  attention  of  an 
international  congress  in  Brussels  in  1902  in  which  sixteen 
nations  formed  an  association  and  established  a  secretariate. 
A  second  conference  in  1906  revised  the  former  convention 
and  adopted  a  normal  drop  measure.2 

The  comparability  of  health  statistics  requires  that  there 
be  uniformity  in  the  nomenclature  of  diseases  which  are  as- 
signed as  the  causes  of  death.  The  delegates  of  twenty-six 
states  met  in  Paris  in  1900,  and  fixed  upon  thirty-eight  general, 
and  189  particular,  causes  of  death.3  The  French  government 
is  charged  with  the  duty  of  calling  together  a  revision  con- 
ference in  1919. 

3.  Exploration  and  Mensuration.  The  exact  measurement 
of  the  earth's  surface  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  the  whole 
world.  In  1864  there  was  formed  the  International  Geodedic 
Association  which,  in  succeeding  years,  has  come  to  enroll  in 
its  activities  twenty-two  states,  and  to  extend  its  labors,  which 
were  at  first  confined  to  the  accurate  mensuration  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  to  embrace  the  whole  earth. 

With  the  accurate  measurement  of  the  earth's  surface  has 
come  a  desire  for  a  World's  Map  upon  a  uniform  scale.  Upon 
the  invitation  of  Great  Britain  eleven  nations  sent  delegates 
to  an  international  conference  in  London  in  1909.4  As  a  re- 
sult of  their  deliberations  we  are  to  have  uniform  maps  of  the 
world  upon  the  scale  of  1 : 1,000,000.  Each  map  is  to  embrace 
a  superficial  area  of  four  degrees  in  latitude  by  six  degrees  in 
longitude.  All  tints  and  colorings  are  to  have  uniform  sig- 
nificance. Soon  the  school-boy  of  every  nation  will  learn  the 

1  Organo  Publicidad  de  la  Oficina  International  Centre- Americana,  1909. 

2  British  Parliamentary  Papers,  1907,  Vol.  53. 

3  Bulletin  de  I' Office  Internationale  d' Hygiene  publique,  19 11. 

4  National  Geographical  Magazine  21:125. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  51 

geographical  names  of  each  country  according  to  the  spelling 
authorized  by  the  government  of  that  country.  Besides  stan- 
dardizing the  teaching  of  geography  the  World's  Map  will 
insure  uniformity  and  accuracy  in  international  negotiations 
and  communications. 

The  subject  of  marine  exploration  is  of  equal  international 
interest  with  the  mensuration  of  the  land,  for  according  to 
international  law  the  high  seas  are  the  highway  of  all  nations. 
The  safety  of  navigation  and  the  profits  of  those  who  make 
merchandise  of  its  products  depend  upon  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  oceans  and  tributary  waters.  The  Hydrographic 
Commission  of  Sweden  invited  the  nations  that  were  especially 
interested  in  the  northern  seas  of  Europe,  to  hold  a  conference 
in  Stockholm  in  1899.1  Nine  states  responded  and  formed  a 
permanent  international  council  with  a  central  bureau.  A 
part  of  the  work  of  this  organization  is  the  study  and  report 
upon  the  habits  and  movements  of  food  fish. 

The  study  of  earthquakes  involves  the  cooperation  of  many 
nations  in  the  establishment  of  observation  stations  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  The  seventh  International  Congress  of 
Geography  suggested  the  desirability  of  holding  an  international 
conference  on  seismology.  The  first  conference  met  in  Stras- 
burg  in  1901 .  At  the  second  conference,  held  in  1903,  in  which 
nineteen  nations  participated,  a  permanent  commission  was 
provided  for  with  a  central  bureau  supported  by  contribu- 
tions from  adhering  states. 

4.  Conservation.  The  question  of  conservation  occupies 
a  large  place  in  the  economic  thought  of  the  day.  It  may  seem 
odd  that  its  first  international  effort  should  have  been  directed 
to  the  preservation  of  animals  and  birds.  Six  European  coun- 
tries were  enough  interested  in  preserving  from  extinction 
certain  wild  animals  of  Africa  to  send  representatives  to  a 
conference  in  London  in  1900.2  They  pledged  their 

1  Geographical  Journal  20:316. 

2  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1900,  Vol.  56. 


52  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

governments  to  adopt  suitable  measures  to  prevent  the 
extermination  of  certain  rare  and  useful  birds  and  animals 
in  a  zone  extending  across  Central  Africa  which  has  become 
an  international  hunting  ground. 

Similarly,  in  Paris  in  1902  eleven  powers  signed  a  conven- 
tion for  the  protection  of  certain  birds  which  are  useful  to 
agriculture  because  of  their  appetites  for  some  very  unde- 
sirable insects.  The  destruction  of  these  birds,  their  nests  or 
eggs,  was  prohibited. 

In  1911  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Russia  and 
Japan  held  in  Washington  a  diplomatic  conference  to  devise 
ways  and  means  to  prevent  the  extermination  of  seals  and 
sea-otters  in  the  waters  of  the  north  Pacific  Ocean.  To  this 
end  pelagic-sealing  was  absolutely  prohibited  and  the  marking 
of  skins  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  they  were  lawfully 
taken  was  made  compulsory.1 

The  conservation  of  the  labor  forces  of  a  nation,  as  pointed 
out  by  Professor  Irving  Fisher  at  the  American  Conservation 
Congress,  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  There  might  be 
mentioned,  therefore,  in  this  connection  the  international 
attempts  at  labor  legislation.  Switzerland  made  two  unsuc- 
cessful attempts,  in  1881  and  1889,  to  bring  the  powers  to- 
gether to  consider  the  question  of  affording  legal  protection 
to  laborers.  In  1890  she  renewed  her  invitation,  but  deferred 
to  the  wish  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany  to  have  a  conference 
held  upon  the  subject  in  Berlin  that  year.  The  conference 
met  but  adopted  no  convention. 

In  1905  another  conference  was  held  in  Berne  which  adopted 
two  conventions,  the  first  opposing  night  work  for  women, 
the  second  against  the  use  of  white  phosphorous  in  the  manu- 
facture of  matches.  The  first  convention  was  ratified  by 
thirteen  European  states  and  the  second  by  two.2 


Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1911,  Vol.  103. 

L.  Chatelain,  "  Le  Protection  Ouvriere." 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  53 

5.  Communication.  Communication  between  the  ends  of 
the  earth  by  post,  telegraph,  rail  or  sea,  inevitably  involves 
international  cooperation. 

In  1 863  an  international  postal  convention  was  held  in  Paris 
by  delegates  from  thirteen  states  and  the  Hansa  towns.  The 
principles  then  laid  down  for  the  facilitation  of  postal  exchange 
were  followed  by  most  governments.  At  Berne,  in  1874,  the 
twenty-four  sovereign  states  represented  in  the  International 
Postal  Union  formed  the.  General  Postal  Union  for  the  pur- 
pose of  creating  "a  single  postal  territory  for  the  reciprocal 
exchange  of  postal  matter."  The  name  was  changed,  in  1878, 
to  the  Universal  Postal  Union.1  Other  nations  have  success- 
ively joined  the  union  until  now  all  the  sovereign  powers  of 
the  world  are  federated  for  the  administration  of  the  postal 
service,  with  a  permanent  bureau  at  Berne.  Conferences  are 
held  every  seven  years.  Thus,  within  half  a  century,  has  been 
achieved  a  world-union  penetrating  the  remotest  corners  of 
the  earth. 

In  1911  the  republics  of  South  America  formed  a  postal 
union  for  the  purposes  of  arranging  suitable  postal  routes,  the 
publication  of  a  map  of  the  continent  and,  in  general,  to  facili- 
tate the  postal  service.2  It  maintains  a  permanent  bureau  at 
Montevideo.  In  the  same  year  the  five  Central  American 
republics  held  a  postal  convention  and  established  an  inter- 
national parcels'  post  for  Central  America. 

The  influence  of  the  telegraph  in  spreading  contemporary 
news,  thus  isochronizing  the  life  of  the  world,  can  scarcely  be 
overestimated.  The  first  step  in  the  linking  of  the  nations  of 
the  world  by  the  submarine  cable  was  taken  in  1851  with  the 
laying  of  the  cable  under  the  English  channel,  between  Dover 
and  Calais. 

The  international  aspects  of  communication  by  means  of 
the  telegraph  were  recognized  as  early  as  1852  when  a 

1  Documents  du  Congres  Postal  de  Paris,  1878. 

2  Bulletin  of  Pan-American  Union,  32:689-698. 


54  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

convention  was  concluded  between  Belgium,  France  and  Prussia. 
But  it  was  not  until  1865  that  the  first  International  Tele- 
graphic Conference  was  held.  By  the  terms  of  the  conven- 
tion adopted  in  St.  Petersburg,  in  1875,1  the  right  of  every 
person  to  communicate  by  means  of  the  telegraph  was  recog- 
nized and  the  privacy  of  telegrams  was  guaranteed.  The 
transmission  of  secret  or  code  messages  was  also  assured,  sub- 
ject to  such  restrictions  or  modifications  as  any  government 
might  deem  necessary.  Notice  of  any  such  restrictions  must 
be  sent  to  each  of  the  contracting  governments.' 

A  conference  of  the  Universal  Telegraphic  Union  was  held 
at  Lisbon  in  1908  at  which  there  were  represented  fifty-one 
powers  and  twenty-nine  private  companies.2  The  Union  main- 
tains a  permanent  bureau  at  Berne. 

The  protection  of  submarine  cables  was  early  seen  to  be  of 
prime  importance  to  the  uninterrupted  transaction  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  world.  When  one  considers  that  there  are  55,747 
miles  of  cables  owned  by  governments,  and  250,072  miles  in 
the  hands  of  private  companies — enough  to  put  a  12-ply  cop- 
per girdle  around  the  earth  at  the  equator — and  that  most  of 
this  cable  lies  outside  territorial  waters,  the  protection  of  these 
cables  can  readily  be  seen  to  be  a  matter  for  international 
regulation. 

The  first  International  Conference  for  the  Protection  of 
Submarine  Cables  was  held  in  1882,  and  was  attended  by  dele- 
gates from  thirty-one  states.3  Two  years  later  a  convention 
was  signed  providing  for  the  enactment  of  laws  by  all  the  con- 
tracting states  making  the  injury  or  destruction  of  cables  a 
penal  offense.  This  piece  of  legislation  might  properly  be 
enumerated  also  under  the  next  general  head,  that  of  inter- 
national legislation. 


1  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1876,  Vol.  84. 
44th  Cong.,  H.  Ex.  doc.  I,  p.  1070. 

2  6oth  Cong.,  2d  sess.,  H.  doc.,  1205. 

3  48th  Cong.,  ist  sess.,  H.  Ex.  doc.,  I,  pt.  I,  p.  254. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  55 

The  appearance  of  wireless  telegraphy,  as  well  as  aerial 
navigation  raised  the  question  of  the  control  of  the  atmosphere 
which  extends  upwards  over  the  national  domain.  No  medium 
of  communication  is  so  regardless  of  national  boundaries  as 
the  Hertzian  waves  which  travel  impartially  in  all  directions 
from  the  center  of  transmission.  The  wireless  impulses  furnish 
a  striking  analogue  to  the  eccentric  influences  of  international- 
ism which  are  following  the  sun  in  his  diurnal  journey  around 
the  world.  Upon  the  invitation  of  Germany  an  international 
conference  for  the  regulation  of  wireless  telegraphy  was  held 
in  Berlin  in  1906  with  delegates  from  twenty-nine  countries 
in  attendance.1  A  second  conference  was  held  in  London  in 
1912.2 

The  advance  made  in  aerial  navigation  has  raised  many 
perplexing  questions  both  of  a  national  and  international 
nature.  The  ease  with  which  national  boundaries  can  be 
crossed,  either  with  hostile  intent  or  for  the  purpose  of  evad- 
ing the  customs'  authorities,  presents  a  serious  subject  for  the 
consideration  of  the  powers.  Individual  states  have  passed 
laws  regulating  the  registration  and  identification  of  air  ships, 
prohibiting  landing  within  certain  prescribed  areas,  etc.  An 
International  Diplomatic  Conference  on  Aerial  Navigation 
was  held  in  Paris  in  1910.  No  convention  was  formulated, 
but  a  desire  was  expressed  for  the  creation  of  an  international 
bureau  of  aerial  navigation  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and 
coordinating  information  of  every  kind  which  would  be  of 
benefit  to  states  and  to  aeronauts. 

The  operation  of  railroads  which,  in  a  country  like  Europe, 
cross  and  recross  state  boundaries,  involves  international  regu- 
lations. Accordingly,  in  1886  there  was  a  conference  at  Berne 
between  the  representatives  of  Germany,  Austria,  France, 
Hungary,  Italy  and  Switzerland.  Other  conferences  were 
held  in  1 886  and  1 907  in  which  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe 

1  59th  Cong.,  2d  sess  ,  H.  doc.  830. 

2  Treaties,  etc.,  ut  supra,  Vol.  3,  p.  185. 


56  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

joined.  These  conferences  have  settled  such  questions  as  the 
guage  of  the  roads,  the  construction  and  repair  of  rolling  stock, 
the  loading  of  cars,  customs'  regulations,  the  making  of  time 
tables  and  tlj£  arrangement  of  through  train  service.1 

The  railways  of  Europe  being  mainly  operated  by  the  various 
governments,  interstate  regulation  is  largely  an  international 
affair.  Interstate  commerce,  complicated  as  it  is  by  the  cus- 
toms* regulations  of  the  different  countries,  made  it  necessary 
for  the  representatives  of  the  governments  to  get  together  to 
devise  ways  and  means  of  facilitating  the  transportation  of 
merchandise.  The  first  international  conference  was  held  in 
Berne,  in  1878,  between  nine  states.  Subsequently  other 
nations  joined  in  regulations  which  have  been  revised  from 
time  to  time. 

Even  the  automobile  has  been  the  subject  of  international 
rules.  An  international  automobile  conference  was  held  in 
Paris,  in  1909,  by  the  representatives  of  nineteen  countries.2 
Regulations  were  adopted  specifying  the  mechanical  con- 
struction and  control  of  such  automobiles  as  would  be  granted 
the  use  of  the  public  roads,  requiring  competency  in  the  chauf- 
feurs who  should  operate  the  cars  and  marks  of  identification 
which  must  be  displayed  by  all  machines.  The  countries 
signatory  to  the  convention  engaged  to  erect  suitable  road 
signs  for  the  guidance  of  motorists. 

Various  conferences  have  been  held  with  a  view  to  pro- 
moting the  safety  of  navigation.  In  1865  ten  European  na- 
tions and  the  United  States  agreed  to  unite  with  Morocco  in 
maintaining  a  lighthouse  on  Cape  Spartel  in  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar.3 

The  rules  of  navigation  which  have  been  adopted  by  all  the 
maritime  nations  were  not  the  result  of  conferences  upon  the 
subject,  but  were  promulgated  by  the  British  Parliament  in 

1  Logan  G.  McPherson,  "Transportation  in  Europe." 

2  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1910,  Vol.  112. 
8     Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1867,  Vol.  74. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  57 

1862.1  Similarly  the  international  code  of  signals,  prepared 
and  published  by  Great  Britain,  has  been  adopted  by  all 
maritime  nations. 

An  international  marine  conference  was  held  in  Wash- 
ington, in  1889,  in  which  nineteen  nations  took  part.2  Resolu- 
tions were  passed  with  a  view  to  lessening  the  dangers  of  navi- 
gation, but  no  diplomatic  convention  was  adopted. 

6.  Commerce  and  Industry.  The  modern  development  of 
commerce  has  reached  such  a  stage  that  the  citizen  of  any 
country  is  coming  to  regard  it  as  his  inalienable  right  to  trade 
in  every  part  of  the  world  and  to  receive  the  protection  and 
assistance  of  his  government  in  his  ventures.  His  govern- 
ment can  assist  him  through  information  regarding  trade  con- 
ditions, governmental  regulations,  duties  and  imposts.  Scien- 
tific business  methods  require  reliable  statistics,  properly  co- 
ordinated. International  efforts  have  been  made  to  provide 
these  facilities.  The  exchange  of  official  public  documents 
and  publications  between  the  states  was  decided  upon  at  a 
conference  in  Brussels  in  1886.  At  the  Pan-American  Con- 
gress in  1902,  the  American  States  entered  into  a  similar 
agreement. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution,  which  is  the  agency  for  the  ex- 
change of  the  documents  of  the  United  States,  now  sends  92 
sets  of  these  to  foreign  depositaries.  Thirty-two  countries 
now  exchange  their  official  journals.3 

It  was  the  Belgian  government  that  suggested  the  advant- 
age to  commerce  which  would  result  from  the  official  publi- 
cation of  the  customs'  tariffs  of  all  nations,  and  at  its  invi- 
tation a  conference  was  held  in  Brussels  in  1888.  Nineteen 
states  finally  joined  in  the  formation  of  the  International 
Union  for  the  Publication  of  Customs'  Tariffs.4  A  bureau 
was  established  at  Brussels  charged  with  the  publication  of 

1  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1868-69,  Vol.  55. 

'  5  ist  Cong.,  ist  sess.,  S.  Ex.  doc.,  Vol.  6,  No.  53. 

*  Smithsonian  Institution  Reports  1913,  p.  31. 

4  28  Statutes  at  Large,  1518. 


58  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  tariffs  of  the  various  countries  in  five  languages,  English, 
German,  French,  Italian  and  Spanish.  The  expense  of  main- 
taining the  bureau  is  borne  proportionally  by  all  the  members 
of  the  union. 

Belgium  also  invited  the  governments  of  the  world  to  a  con- 
ference upon  the  question  of  commercial  statistics.  Twenty- 
seven  countries  sent  delegates  to  a  conference  which  met  in 
Brussels  in  1910.  The  object  of  the  conference  was  to  pro- 
mote the  unification  and  standardization  of  commercial  statis- 
tics, suggesting  classifications  which  would  render  those  of 
different  countries  comparable. 

The  International  Institute  of  Agriculture,  which  met  for 
the  first  time  in  Rome  in  1905,1  was  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  and  disseminating  information  and  statistics 
concerning  produce,  market  prices,  wages  of  farm  laborers, 
systems  of  cooperation,  credit  and  insurance,  the  appearance, 
spread  and  treatment  of  plant  diseases;  to  suggest  various 
government  measures  for  the  protection  of  the  interests  of 
the  agricultural  class  and  the  improvement  of  their  conditions. 
The  union  has  grown  until  it  includes  most  of  the  principal 
countries  of  the  world. 

The  policy  of  several  governments  to  grant  bounties  to 
sugar  manufacturers  led  to  international  efforts  to  offset  these 
advantages  by  the  establishment  of  countervailing  duties 
against  sugar  imported  from  such  countries.  The  first  con- 
ference on  the  subject  was  held  in  Paris  in  1863  by  delegates 
from  Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain  and  Holland.  Many 
conferences  were  held  without  satisfactory  results  until,  in 
1902,  ten  powers  formed  the  Sugar  Union  and  adopted  a  con- 
vention providing  for  a  permanent  organization  and  a  bureau 
located  at  Brussels.2  The  sugar  commission  has  the  power  of 
affecting  the  laws  of  the  adhering  states  through  its  determi- 
nations and  decisions. 

1  Brit.  Pad.  Papers,  1910,  Vol.  112. 
Treaties,  etc.,  Vol.  2,  p.  2140. 

2  Brit.  Pad.  Papers,  1903,  Vol.  87. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  59 

7.  Police  Regulation.  Not  until  the  nations  of  the  world 
united  to  do  police  duty  did  the  African  slave  trade  receive 
its  death  blow.  It  had  been  denounced  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815  and  at  Verona  in  1822.  It  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  the  powers  again  at  the  Treaty  of  London  in  1841, 
and  at  the  Conference  of  Berlin  in  1885.  But  the  trade  was 
still  active  when  Belgium  invited  the  powers  to  hold  a  con- 
ference at  Brussels  in  1889.1  Eighteen  powers  took  part  in 
the  long  deliberations  which  terminated  in  formulating  plans 
which  have  succeeded  in  practically  stamping  out  the  traffic. 

The  same  conference  restricted  the  importation  of  arms 
and  rum  into  the  Dark  Continent.  The  regulations  regard- 
ing the  importation  of  arms  were  revised  at  a  conference  held 
in  Brussels,  in  1908,  composed  of  delegates  from  fourteen 
nations,  and  those  restricting  alcohol  were  revised  in  1906. 

The  need  of  intergovernmental  action  to  repress  the  circu- 
lation of  obscene  literature  and  pictures  was  indicated  at  a 
private  congress  against  pornography  held  in  Paris,  in  1908, 
in  which  eighty-six  associations  were  represented.  Request 
for  concerted  action  by  the  various  governments  resulted  in  an 
international  conference  at  Paris  in  1910,  at  which  fifteen 
nations  were  represented.2  Each  of  the  states  signing  the 
convention  agreed  to  designate  an  authorized  agency  to  co- 
operate with  similar  agencies  in  other  countries  in  the  sup- 
pression of  obscene  publications. 

At  the  suggestion  of  the  United  States  an  International 
Opium  Commission  met  in  Shanghai  in  1909.3  Twelve  powers 
took  part,  through  their  delegates,  strongly  urging  the  various 
governments  to  take  drastic  measures  to  control  the  manu- 
facture, sale  and  distribution  of  opium  and  its  derivatives. 
This  subject  is  discussed  at  length  in  Chapter  X. 

The  suppression  of  the  white  slave  traffic  has  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  powers  since  1902,  when  an  international 

1    Treaties,  etc.,  Vol.  2,  p.  1993, 
Treaties,  etc.,  Vol.  3,  p.  133. 
8    6ist  Cong.,  2d  sess.,  S.  doc.,  377. 


60  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

conference  was  held  upon  the  subject  in  Paris.  It  resulted  in 
an  arrangement  between  sixteen  nations  whereby  a  central 
authority  in  each  was  designated  to  cooperate  with  similar 
officials  in  other  countries  in  the  most  effectual  plans  for  the 
suppression  of  the  traffic  in  women  and  girls  for  immoral  pur- 
poses. A  second  conference  upon  the  subject  was  held  in  Paris 
in  1904.1 


II.  INTERNATIONAL  LEGISLATION 


v/ 


International  conferences  have  made  large  contributions  to 
the  body  of  international  law.  In  the  relations  of  civilized 
states  to  one  another  there  has  grown  up  a  mass  of  customs 
and  precedents  which,  by  common  consent,  have  come  to  be 
looked  upon  as  binding  upon  those  who  would  retain  the  re- 
spect of  the  enlightened  powers  constituting  the  family  of 
nations.  This  crystallization  of  the  general  opinion  as  to  how 
nations  should  behave  in  their  relations  one  to  another  is  known 
as  international  law. 

Additions  to  international  law  have  come  from  the  opinions 
of  eminent  scholars  and  jurists,  from  the  decisions  of  national 
and  admiralty  courts  and  from  those  practices  of  nations  which 
have  come  to  be  regarded  as  in  keeping  with  the  dictates  of 
humanity  and  the  general  welfare  of  society.  But  the  definite 
formulation  and  codification  of  these  rules  have  fallen  to  the 
international  conferences,  preeminently  to  the  two  Peace 
Conferences  held  at  the  Hague  in  1899  and  1907. 

Professor  Hershey  says:  "The  half  century  beginning  with 
the  Declaration  of  Paris,  in  1856,  and  ending  with  the  London 
Conference  in  1909,  has  seen  greater  progress  in  the  direction 
of  internationalism  and  more  successful  attempts  to  improve 
and  codify  international  law  than  any  other  in  history,  and 
possibly  more  than  all  previous  half -centuries  combined.  It 

1    Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1906,  Vol.  137. 
Treaties,  etc.,  Vol.  2,  p.  2131. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  61 

has  been  a  period  of  congresses  and  conferences,  of  inter- 
national unions  and  associations  with  definite  organs  in  the 
shape  of  commissions  and  bureaus  which  are  rapidly  develop- 
ing a  sort  of  international  legislation  and  an  international 
administrative  law."1 

The  enormous  cost,  in  blood  and  treasure,  of  the  wars  of 
Europe  by  which  feudalism  had  been  destroyed,  the  map  of 
Europe  practically  settled,  national  domains  established  and 
a  balance  of  power  recognized  as  necessary  to  the  peace  of 
Europe,  had  made  it  plain  to  reflecting  minds  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  Christian  powers  to  cooperate  to  make  war  less  terrible. 
To  reduce  the  horrors  of  war  to  their  lowest  terms,  to  pre- 
scribe rules  for  the  bloody  game  of  the  ages,  to  assert  and 
maintain  the  rights  of  belligerants  and  neutrals — these  were 
among  the  first  aims  of  international  legislation.  That  nations 
would  ever  cease  to  submit  their  differences  to  the  bloody 
arbitrament  of  the  sword  seemed  the  irridescent  dream  of 
visionaries.  But  that  humanity  demanded  a  mitigation  of 
the  horrors  of  war,  and  that  the  general  welfare  demanded 
the  uninterrupted  flow  of  a  rapidly  augmenting  commerce, 
they  were  ready  to  admit. 

At  the  close  of  the  Crimean  war  the  plenipotentiaries  of 
Great  Britain,  Austria,  France,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sardinia  and 
Turkey  met  in  Paris,  in  1856,  to  settle  questions  growing  out 
of  the  struggle.  They  adopted  rules  concerning  the  abolition 
of  privateering  and  the  rights  of  neutrals  which  have  come  to 
be  regarded  as  international  law  upon  the  subject.2 

The  Geneva  Convention  of  1864  was  the  result  of  interest 
in  the  wounded  soldier  created  by  the  book  of  Dr.  Henri  Dun- 
ant  in  which  he  described  the  awful  scenes  he  had  witnessed 
on  the  battlefield  of  Solferino  in  the  Crimean  War.  Switzer- 
land invited  the  powers  to  confer  upon  the  question  of  the 
amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  war. 

1    A.  S.  Hershey,  "Essentials  of  International  Law." 
a    Brit.  Pad.  Papers,  1856,  Vol.  61. 


Of 

UNIV. 


62  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

Nine  nations  and  five  German  states  responded,  and  the  con- 
vention adopted  gave  rise  to  the  Red  Cross  Society.  The  pro- 
visions of  the  convention  for  the  treatment  of  sick  and  wounded 
marked  a  long  step  forward  in  humanizing  the  regime  of 
war  and  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  part  of  international 
law.1 

By  the  Geneva  convention  of  1868  an  effort  was  made  to 
extend  to  maritime  warfare  the  provisions  of  the  convention 
of  1864.  The  articles  were  never  formally  ratified  but  have 
been  generally  adhered  to  by  the  principal  maritime  powers 
ever  since. 

In  1868  an  international  military  commission,  called  to- 
gether at  St.  Petersburg  by  Russia,  declared  the  only  legiti- 
mate object  of  warfare  to  be  the  weakening  of  the  military 
forces  of  the  enemy,  and  that  the  use  of  projectiles  which  would 
uselessly  aggravate  the  sufferings  of  disabled  men  was  con- 
trary to  the  laws  of  humanity.  This  Declaration  of  St.  Peters- 
burg condemned  the  use  of  the  "dum~dum,"  or  expanding 
bullet.  Twenty  states  signed  the  convention.2 

Our  own  Civil  War  afforded  aggravations  to  the  increas- 
ingly sensitive  conscience  of  Europe  by  many  infractions  of 
what  were  coming  to  be  regarded  as  the  laws  which  should 
regulate  modern  warfare.  An  effort  was  made  to  codify  these 
laws,  relating  to  the  conduct  of  war,  at  a  conference  at  Brus- 
sels, in  1874,  proposed  by  Alexander  II  of  Russia.  The  decla- 
rations there  drawn  up  grew  out  of  Dr.  Francis  Lieber's  In- 
structions for  the  Government  of  Armies  in  the  Field  issued 
to  the  northern  army  during  the  Civil  War.3  While  they  did 
not  receive  the  sanction  of  the  governments  represented  and 
did  not,  at  that  time,  become  international  law,  their  influence 
appeared  in  the  manuals  of  military  law  drawn  up  by 
European  governments  for  the  use  of  armies  in  the  field. 

1  Treaties,  Conventions,  etc.,  p.  1903. 

2  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1868-69,  Vol.  64 

1    Joseph  H.  Choate,  "The  Two  Hague  Conferences." 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  63 

Practically  all  of  the  articles  of  the  declaration  were  adopted 
by  the  First  Peace  Conference  and  became  international  law.1 

The  greatest  advances  in  international  legislation  were  made 
at  the  Peace  Conferences  at  the  Hague  in  1899  and  1907.  The 
First  Peace  Conference  assembled  in  1899  in  response  to  an 
invitation  by  the  Czar  whose  ideals  for  that  gathering  appear 
in  the  following  extract  from  his  note  to  the  powers:  "The 
maintenance  of  general  peace,  and  a  possible  reduction  of 
excessive  armaments  which  weigh  upon  all  nations,  present 
themselves  in  the  existing  conditions  of  the  world,  as  the  ideals 
towards  which  the  endeavors  of  all  governments  should  be 
directed."  Twenty-six  nations  were  represented,  including 
China,  Japan  and  Siam  of  the  nations  of  the  orient,  and  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  from  the  American  continent.  The 
other  American  republics  were  not  included  in  the  invitation 
inasmuch  as,  to  avoid  a  delicate  situation  which  arose  over 
seating  delegates  from  the  Transvaal  and  the  Vatican,  it  was 
decided  to  invite  only  such  powers  as  were  represented  at  the 
Russian  court.  The  second  conference  included  the  other 
American  republics  who  had  already,  at  the  second  Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress,  signified  their  willingness  to  abide  by  the  con- 
vention of  the  First  Peace  Conference. 

Early  in  the  first  conference  it  became  apparent  that  unani- 
mous action  could  not  be  secured  on  the  question  of  the  re- 
duction of  armaments,  and  the  conference  contented  itself 
with  a  resolution  expressing  the  "opinion  that  the  restriction 
of  military  budgets,  which  are  at  present  a  heavy  burden  on 
the  world,  is  extremely  desirable  for  the  increase  of  the  ma- 
terial and  moral  welfare  of  mankind." 

The  conference  codified  and  enacted  the  rules  for  warfare 
on  land  which  had  been  set  forth  in  the  Brussels'  Declaration 
of  1874,  and  added  some  new  articles.  It  also  extended  the 
provisions  of  the  Geneva  Conference  of  1864  to  naval  warfare. 


1    A.  P.  Higgins,  "The  Hague  Peace  Conferences." 


64  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  chief  advance  made  by  this  conference  was  the  accept- 
ance by  the  nations  of  the  principle  of  the  adjustment  of  dif- 
ferences by  arbitration.  Article  I  of  the  convention  upon  the 
subject  reads:  "With  a  view  to  obviating,  as  far  as  possible, 
recourse  to  force  in  the  relations  between  states,  the  signatory 
powers  agree  to  use  their  best  efforts  to  insure  the  pacific 
settlement  of  international  differences."  As  means  for  such 
adjustments  of  differences  the  conference  approved  of  the 
mediation  of  one  or  more  friendly  powers,  international  com- 
missions of  inquiry  and  a  permanent  Arbitration  Court  for 
which  provisions  were  made. 

The  Second  Peace  Conference  was  held  at  the  Hague  in 
1907,  and  this  was  a  real  world's  conference  at  which  forty- 
four  sovereign  states  were  represented.  The  advance  made 
in  this  conference  was  marked  by  two  things:  (1)  the  agree- 
ment of  the  signatory  powers  not  to  resort  to  armed  force  for 
the  recovery  of  contract  debts  due  the  nationals  of  a  govern- 
ment, unless  the  debtor  country  refused  to  submit  the  ques- 
tion to  arbitration;  (2)  the  establishment  of  an  international 
Court  of  Appeal  in  Prize  Cases.1 

One  of  the  striking  features  of  internationalism  is  publicity 
and  discussion.  The  first  conference,  bound  by  the  traditions 
and  customs  of  secret  diplomacy,  made  every  effort  to  secure 
absolute  secrecy  for  its  sessions  and  discussions,  with,  how- 
ever, only  partial  success.  But  public  opinion  rebelled  and, 
in  the  newer  spirit  of  internationalism,  demanded  the  right 
to  know,  through  the  usual  channels  of  intelligence,  what  was 
being  done  and  said  at  a  conference  which  was  felt  to  be  fraught 
with  consequences  of  vast  import  to  humanity.  At  the  second 
session  the  rule  was  relaxed  to  some  extent,  and  the  interest 
of  the  world  at  large  in  the  subject  under  discussion  is  indi- 
cated by  William  I.  Hull  in  the  following  paragraph: 

1    T.  J.  Lawrence,  "International  Problems  and  Hague  Conferences." 
W.  I.  Hull,  "The  Two  Hague  Conferences." 
J.  B.  Scott,  "The  Hague  Peace  Conferences  of  1899  and  1907." 
F.  W.  Holls,  "The  Peace  Conference  at  the  Hague." 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  65 

'The  great  majority  of  newspapers  and  journals,  as  well  as 
the  world  of  public  opinion,  were  profoundly  interested  in 
and  hopeful  of  the  conference,  and  did  their  best  to  help  it 
to  arrive  at  beneficial  results.  Thousands  of  addresses  and 
dozens  of  deputations  evinced  this  interest  and  sought  to 
realize  the  hopes  which  they  expressed.  Among  the  most  sig- 
nificant deputations  and  addresses  may  be  mentioned  those 
from:  The  International  Council  of  Women,  bearing  the 
signatures  of  two  million  women  living  in  twenty  different 
countries;  the  Universal  Alliance  of  Women  for  Peace  by 
Education,  representing  nearly  five  million  women  of  all 
civilized  lands;  English,  American  and  European  churches, 
bearing  the  signatures  of  sixty  archbishops  and  bishops  and 
more  than  a  hundred  official  representatives  of  non-episcopal 
churches;  the  International  Federation  of  Students;  the 
students  of  the  Netherlands, — a  branch  of  "Corda  Fratres"; 
twenty-three  colleges  in  the  central  west  of  the  United  States, 
representing  twenty-seven  thousand  professors  and  students; 
a  petition  for  arbitration  bearing  two  and  a  quarter  million 
signatures,  collected  through  the  efforts  of  a  single  Boston 
teacher  and  presented  by  her  to  the  president  of  the  conference 
on  the  Fourth  of  July;  two  thousand  students  of  the  Summer 
School  at  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  who  also  cabled  their  address 
to  the  conference  on  the  Fourth  of  July;  fifteen  thousand 
citizens  of  Sweden,  meeting  separately  in  their  various  locali- 
ties; the  International  Bureau  of  Peace  with  its  headquarters 
in  Berne;  many  peace  societies  of  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France,  Portugal,  San  Marino  and  Japan;  and  two 
very  noteworthy  peace  congresses, — that  of  April,  1907,  in 
New  York  City,  and  that  of  September,  in  Munich,  Germany."1 

The  foregoing  category  is  an  illuminating  commentary  upon 
the  development  of  the  spirit  of  internationalism  by  the  year 
1907. 


W.  I.  Hull,  "The  Two  Hague  Conferences,"  p.  26. 


66  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  laws  touching  naval  warfare  were  further  extended  at 
the  International  Naval  Conference  which  was  held  in  London, 
1908-9,  upon  the  invitation  of  the  British  government.  Ten 
naval  powers  took  part  in  the  conference  which  issued  a  decla- 
ration of  the  principles  which  are  generally  recognized  as  apply- 
ing to  maritime  warfare.1 

Private  international  law,  or  the  "conflict  of  laws,"  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  has  been  considered  at  four  international 
conferences  in  which  sixteen  nations  have  taken  part.  The 
effort  of  these  conferences  has  been  towards  uniformity  in  the 
laws  of  different  nations  touching  such  questions  as  marriage 
and  divorce,  inheritance,  guardianship,  etc. 

Maritime  law,  which  is  concerned  with  collisions  between 
vessels,  questions  of  salvage,  etc.,  has  been  the  subject  of  four 
conferences  at  Brussels  attended  by  the  representatives  of 
twenty-four  powers. 

The  broadening  of  the  field  of  activity  of  the  citizens  of 
any  nation,  until  state  lines  begin  to  grow  indistinct  and  even 
to  fade  away,  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  progress  towards  inter- 
national cooperation  in  the  matter  of  patents,  trademarks 
and  copyrights.  Advance  has  been  made  towards  giving 
the  author  or  inventor  protection  for  his  industrial,  literary 
or  artistic  property  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own  state.  Piracy 
on  the  high  seas  was  long  ago  abolished  by  international  action. 
Literary  and  industrial  piracy  is  ere  long  to  take  the  same 
course. 

Numerous  conferences  looking  to  the  protection  of  in- 
dustrial property  by  international  patents  and  trade  marks 
and  the  protection  of  literary  and  artistic  property  by  means 
of  international  copyright,  have  been  held  since  I860.2 

The  ideal  aimed  at  is  such  a  union  of  states  that  the  securing 
of  a  patent  or  copyright  in  any  one  nation  will  operate  auto- 
matically to  secure  equal  protection  in  all  the  other  states. 

1  Treaties,  etc.,  Vol.  3,  p.  266. 

2  Wm.  Briggs,  "The  Law  of  Copyright." 

R.  R.  Bowker,  "Copyright,  Its  History  and  Law." 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  67 

Such  conditions  practically  obtain  with  respect  to  patents 
and  trade  marks  in  a  restricted  union  formed  by  ten  states  at 
the  international  conference  in  Madrid  in  1891.  The  Inter- 
national Bureau  of  Industrial  Property  at  Berne  is  the  central 
office  of  registration. 

Numerous  international  conferences  have  been  held  since 
1884  for  the  protection  of  literary  and  artistic  productions 
through  international  copyright.  A  central  bureau  was  formed 
in  1888  and  since  1892  has  been  associated  with  the  Inter- 
national Bureau  of  Industrial  Property. 

III.    PAN-AMERICANISM 

Pan-Americanism  is  a  form  of  international  cooperation 
which  is  both  legislative  and  administrative  and  should  have 
separate  mention.1  It  falls  short  of  internationalism  in  its 
widest  sense  because  it  aims  primarily  at  advancing  the  in- 
terests of  American  republics.  As  it  lay  in  the  mind  of  the 
Colombian  patriot,  Bolivar,  it  was  undoubtedly  an  instru- 
ment of  defense  against  European  aggression.  In  1826  Boli- 
var issued  an  invitation  to  the  nations  of  America  to  hold  a 
congress  at  Panama.  The  far-sighted  statesman  saw  that  a 
strong  coalition  of  American  states  would  make  aggression 
by  the  Holy  Alliance  less  likely.  But  he  had  in  mind  also  the 
establishment  of  the  principle  of  arbitration  between  the  con- 
tracting states. 

The  conference  that  was  called  to  meet  at  Panama  was 
attended  by  representatives  of  only  four  governments,  Colom- 
bia, Central  America,  Peru  and  Mexico.  The  convention 
was  not  ratified  by  the  states,  but  it  was  a  foregleam  of  the 
peace  pact  that  was  later  to  unify  the  whole  American  conti- 
nent. 

In  the  century  between  1808  and  1908  twenty  Latin  re- 
publics were  carved  out  of  the  lands  which  had  for  the  most 

1    John  Barrett,  "The  Pan-American  Union." 

Monthly  Bulletins,  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics. 


68  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

part  belonged  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  Great  dissimilarities 
exist  between  them  because  of  various  ethnic  mixtures  and 
amalgamations.  The  heterogeneity  of  their  populations  has 
not  added  stability  to  their  governments  and  revolutions  have 
been  of  frequent  occurrence.  While  differing  largely  from 
each  other  they  have  been  more  like  each  other  than  like  the 
larger  Teutonic  republic  in  North  America.  Yet  notwith- 
standing wide  divergencies  there  has  developed  within  the 
past-quarter-century  a  unity  between  all  of  these  American 
republics  which  has  crystallized  into  the  Pan-American  Union. 

When  Mr.  Elaine  became  Secretary  of  State  he  put  into 
execution  a  plan  which  he  had  cherished  for  calling  a  con- 
ference of  the  American  states  "to  consider  and  discuss  the 
methods  of  preventing  war  between  the  nations  of  America." 
His  hopes  were  realized  in  1889  when  the  United  States  issued 
an  invitation  to  the  Latin  republics  to  join  in  an  international 
conference  at  Washington.  He  had  the  honor  to  be  elected 
its  first  president. 

The  conference  created  the  International  Union  of  American 
Republics  with  a  permanent  bureau  charged  with  the  task  of 
collecting  and  publishing  the  customs'  tariffs  of  the  several 
countries,  all  official  regulations  touching  commerce,  together 
with  such  statistics  of  commerce  and  domestic  products  as 
would  be  of  interest  to  the  merchants  and  shippers  of  the 
countries  represented. 

The  duties  of  the  bureau,  which  came  to  be  known  as  "The 
International  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics,"  were  sub- 
sequently expanded  to  include  the  compilation  of  treaties  and 
conventions  between  the  American  Republics  themselves  and 
non-American  states,  to  supply  information  on  educational 
matters  and,  in  general,  to  facilitate  the  carrying  out  of  the 
measures  adopted  by  the  conferences.  Successive  conferences 
have  been  held  at  Mexico,  1891-1892,  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1906, 
and  at  Buenos  Aires  in  1910.  At  the  latter  the  name  was 
changed  to  the  Pan-American  Union. 


OFFICIAL  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCES  69 

In  1910  the  Pan-American  Union  entered  into  the  possession 
of  its  beautiful  building  in  Washington,  the  generous  gift  of 
Mr.  Carnegie,  and  dedicated  to  peace  between  the  American 
states. 

The  Union  has  stood  for  the  arbitration  of  all  pecuniary 
claims  which  cannot  be  settled  by  diplomatic  means;  for  the 
construction  of  a  neutralized  railway  connecting  the  nations 
of  the  two  continents;  for  the  promotion  of  all  means  for  the 
facilitating  of  commerce  and  communication  between  the 
nations. 

These  principles  will  be  seen  to  be  in  consonance  with  the 
action  of  the  larger  group  of  states,  which  action  is  a  plain 
manifestation  of  internationalism.  While  Pan-Americanism 
may  not  be  the  purest  type  of  internationalism,  the  tendency 
is  for  less  stress  to  be  laid  upon  purely  American  interests. 
With  the  strengthening  of  the  Latin  republics,  the  plain  de- 
termination of  the  United  States  to  uphold  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine and  the  growth  of  a  spirit  of  solidarity,  the  likelihood  of 
European  intervention  and  aggression  becomes  more  and 
more  remote.  Increasing  facilities  of  communication  between 
South  America  and  Europe,  especially  with  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  will  operate  to  lessen  the  spirit  of  Pan-Ameri- 
canism and  promote  a  spirit  of  broader  internationalism. 

The  very  fact  that  in  many  of  those  measures  which  the 
Pan-American  Union  is  designed  to  foster,  the  American 
nations  have,  within  the  past  few  years,  joined  with  other 
nations  of  the  world  to  promote  in  a  wider  sphere,  is  proof 
that  the  habit  of  getting  together  in  smaller  groups  is  helpful 
to  the  larger  world  unity.  All  of  the  topics  treated  in  Pan- 
American  conferences  have  also  been  considered  in  their  world- 
wide bearings,  even  the  matter  of  an  inter-continental  rail- 
way since  the  question  has  been  mooted  of  a  railway  joining 
North  America  and  Asia  by  a  tunnel  under  Behring  Strait. 

Europe  has  had  its  international  unions  like  the  Sugar 
Union,  the  Railway  Union,  etc.,  which  have  arisen  out  of 


TABLE  I 

CONFERENCES  OF  GENERAL  INTEREST,    SHOWING    THE 

DEGREE  TO  WHICH  EACH  HAS  RECEIVED  THE 

ADHERENCE  OF  THE  NATIONS 

I.  ADMINISTRATION 

1.  Sanitation 

L  Sanitary  Cf — __^_^__^_ 

2.  Standardization 

Wts.  and  Meas ^__^^-^^__ 

I.  Monetary  Cf ^___«— 

World's  Map _^^^__ 

Causes  of  Death   .     .     .     .— .^ .. mm _ .^_ _^M . . 
I.  Pharmacopoeia .     .     .     . 

3.  Explor'n  and  Mens. 

I.  GeodedicAs _____ 

I.  Seismological  Cf.    .     .     .___«——_«_ 
I.  Hydrographic  Cl.  .     .     . 

4.  Conservation 

Labor  Legislation  .     .     . 

5.  Communication 

Postal  Union  .... 
U.  Tele.  Union  .  .  . 
Protec.  Sub-Mar.  Cab.  . 
Radiotel.  Union  .  .  . 
I.  Maritime  Cf.  .  .  . 

6.  Commerce  and  Industry 

Pub.  of  Customs  Tariffs 
Commer.  Statis.   .     .     . 

Inst.  of  Agric 

Exch.  of  Off.  Pubs.   .     . 

7.  Police  Regulation 

Slave  Traffic  .... 
Reg.  of  Alco.  in  Africa  . 
Repres.  Obscene  Lit. .  . 

I.  Opium  Cf 

Suppres.  White  Slav.      . 


II.  LEGISLATION 

Peace  Cf 

Naval  Cf 

I.  Patent  Law 

I.  Copyright  Law     .... 

Private  I.  Law 

Maritime  Law 


TABLE  II 


SHOWING  DEGREE  OF  CO-OPERATION  OF  EACH  NATION 

IN  THE  THIRTY  GROUPS  OF  CONFERENCES 

LISTED  IN  TABLE  I 


Holland  . 
Germany 
France   . 
Belgium 
Spain      . 
Italy       . 
Russia    . 
Sweden  . 
Denmark 
Great  Brita  n 
Portugal 
Norway 
Austria-Hunga  y 
United  States 
Switzerland 
Japan     .     . 
Mexico   .     . 
Brazil     .     . 
Rumania     . 
Chili       .     . 
Argentina    . 
Greece    .     . 
Uruguay      . 
Bulgaria      . 
China     .     . 
Servia    .     . 
Luxembourg 
Persia     .     . 
Turkey  .     . 
Peru       .     . 
Venezuela   . 
Colombia    . 
Guatemala 
Nicaragua  . 
Siam       .     . 
Bolivia  .     . 
San  Salvador 
Ecuador 
Costa  Rica 
Cuba     .     . 
Montenegro 
Domingo     . 
Haiti      .     . 
Paraguay    . 
Honduras    . 
Monaco 
Panama 
Liberia  .     . 
Abyssinia    . 
San  Marino 


Scale 


50% 


100% 


72  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

continental  needs.  So  has  America.  But  the  principle  of 
international  cooperation  being  established  even  within  limited 
areas,  and  the  international  habit  being  formed,  it  is  rational 
to  suppose  that  internationalism  will  continue  to  grow  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  material  and  moral  welfare  of  hu- 
manity until  there  is  a  practical  federation  of  the  world. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  in  Tables  I  and  II  to  represent 
graphically  the  extent  to  which  international  cooperation  has 
progressed  among  the  sovereign  states  of  the  world.  Of  the 
many  subjects  which  have  claimed  the  attention  of  official 
international  conferences,  thirty  have  been  selected  as 
being  fairly  universal  in  their  scope  or  in  the  principles  involved. 
These  have  been  classified  in  Table  I  and  the  length  of  the 
black  bar  in  each  case  represents  proportionally  the  number 
of  states  cooperating.  The  Universal  Postal  Union,  receiving 
the  adherence  of  all  the  states  represents  the  index  100. 

In  Table  II  the  sovereign  states  of  the  world  are  arranged 
in  the  order  of  their  participation  in  the  thirty  subjects 
listed  in  Table  I.  Holland,  having  participated  in  every  one 
of  the  thirty  groups  of  conferences,  represents  he  index  100. 


CHAPTER  V. 
UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES 

Significant  as  has  been  the  growth  of  cooperation  between 
nations  as  measured  by  the  conventions  adopted  by  pleni- 
potentiaries, there  is  a  larger  manifestation  of  international 
life  in  the  even  more  remarkable  growth  of  associations  of 
private  citizens  who,  through  international  congresses  with 
permanent  bureaus  and  committees,  seek  to  coordinate  their 
efforts  in  the  advancement  of  their  particular  interests. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  thinking  that  these  private 
congresses  afford  a  truer  index  of  the  real  growth  of  inter- 
nationalism than  official  conferences.  In  the  first  place  they 
are  more  spontaneous.  Persons  voluntarily  associate  them- 
selves along  the  lines  of  their  major  interests.  Private  con- 
gresses are  usually  made  up  of  men  and  women  whose  com- 
mon interests  bring  them  together. 

In  the  second  place,  discussion  in  private  congresses  is  freer 
than  in  diplomatic  conferences.  Delegates  to  the  latter  are 
usually  limited  both  in  action  and  expression  by  the  instruct- 
ions of  their  governments.  The  customs  and  precedents  of 
an  older  age  of  diplomacy  interfere  with  democratic  freedom. 
National  pride  is  easily  injured  and  frank  and  free  expression 
is  attended  with  grave  dangers.  The  rule  of  unanimity,  which 
prevails  in  the  determination  of  all  measures  in  an  official 
conference,  often  makes  the  final  draft  of  the  convention  a 
disappointing  compromise  forced  by  the  stubbornness  of  a 
single  state,  and  perhaps  a  very  small  one  at  that. 

In  the  third  place,  the  unofficial  congresses  have  a  larger 
content.  The  sum  total  of  international  life  as  expressed  in 
the  interests  covered  by  private  congresses  more  nearly  totals 
the  whole  life  of  man  than  that  of  official  conferences.  There 
is  not  a  department  of  thought  or  endeavor  of  any  considerable 


THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  75 

group  of  men  in  any  civilized  country  that  does  not  now  reach 
into  the  international  field  of  discussion.  There  is  no  occupa- 
tion or  profession,  not  strictly  local,  but  has  relationships 
which  cross  many  state  lines.  The  doctor  and  his  patient, 
the  lawyer  and  his  client,  the  minister  and  the  church  mem- 
ber, the  teacher  and  the  student,  the  merchant  and  the  crafts- 
man, the  trust  magnate  and  the  labor  agitator,  the  reformer 
and  the  criminal,  the  artist,  the  athlete,  the  philanthropist, 
the  scientist,  the  suffragette,  all  these  and  more  find  the  topics 
that  interest  or  concern  them  discussed  in  congresses  where 
men  from  all  parts  of  the  world  come  together. 

Since  1840,  there  have  been  held  more  than  2,700  inter- 
national conferences  and  congresses.  There  are  more  than 
400  international  organizations,  many  of  them  with  perma- 
nent bureaus  and  continuation  committees.  The  growth  in 
international  conferences  and  congresses  by  decades  ending 
Dec.  31,  1913,  is  indicated  in  Chart  II,  page  76. 

In  Chart  I  on  page  74,  the  number  of  conferences  and  con- 
gresses held  each  year  is  indicated.  The  high  points  of  the 
curves  will  be  found  to  occur  in  the  years  of  the  great  inter- 
national expositions.  The  definite  attempts  made  to  stimu- 
late the  holding  of  international  congresses  during  world's 
fairs  have  already  been  alluded  to  in  the  chapter  on  World's 
Fairs. 

In  view  of  the  large  numbers  of  congresses  held  and  the 
variety  of  interests  represented,  they  can  only  be  reviewed 
in  a  general  way.  Without  attempting  a  careful  or  scienti- 
fically accurate  classification  of  these  international  associations 
it  will  be  convenient  to  treat  of  them  under  several  heads. 
These  categories  are  not  mutually  exclusive  and  many  con- 
gresses might  be  classified  with  equal  appropriateness  under 
two  or  more  heads.  But  an  effort  has  been  made  to  avoid 
duplication.  It  is  hoped  that  their  significance  may  appear 
in  the  somewhat  general  divisions  adopted. 


76 


THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 


1904-13 


CHART  II 

Showing  growth  of  International 

Conferences  and  Congresses  by 

decades,  1844-1913 

Figure*  tAken'ftom  Annusira  de  b  Vie  (AtcmitiontJ  Ifll0.ll 


I864-73 


1674-83 


1884*93. 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  77 

I.    ECONOMIC  INTEREST 

We  may  start  with  the  economic  interest  as  one  which  en- 
gages the  attention  of  every  individual.  It  is  the  question  of 
daily  bread,  of  clothing  and  shelter.  This  interest  touches 
even  those  who  live  upon  the  very  margin  of  economic  inde- 
pendence and  impels  them  to  seek  through  association  and 
collective  action  that  advantage  in  the  labor  world  which  they 
could  not  hope  to  obtain  as  individual  units.  Workers  in  the 
principal  trades  and  crafts  have  been  internationally  organized 
and  there  is  a  growing  awareness  upon  the  part  of  each  national 
group  of  the  conditions  of  labor  in  other  countries.  With  the 
increased  mobility  of  labor,  the  call  for  skilled  artizans  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  and  the  standardization  of  pro- 
cesses, no  vocational  group  can  hope  to  live  in  isolation  or 
attain  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  without  some  know- 
ledge of  world-wide  conditions  affecting  the  trade  or  profession. 
Through  the  medium  of  the  almost  innumerable  trade  journals 
the  knowledge  of  international  conditions  reaches  the  most 
remote  local  group. 

More  than  seventy  professional  and  vocational  groups  have 
held  international  congresses  for  the  discussion  of  matters 
pertaining  to  their  particular  vocations.  This  does  not  in- 
clude the  large  number  of  international  trade  organizations 
which  are  allied  to  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  but 
which  are  international  only  in  the  sense  that  they  extend  to 
Canada.  Only  those  of  a  wider  and  European  nexus  are 
counted. 

If  we  turn  to  the  varied  phases  of  agriculture,  animal  hus- 
bandry and  the  industries  associated  with  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  we  count  forty-six  international  groups,  and  if  we  add 
fishing  to  the  list  we  have  seven  more.  Twenty  groups  are 
interested  in  some  phase  of  commerce  or  transportation.  The 
Chambers  of  Commerce  of  various  nations  have  held  five  inter- 
national congresses  since  1905  and  have  a  permanent  com- 
mittee at  Brussels.  The  International  Railway  Congress  and 


78  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  International  Tramway  Congress  also  have  continuation 
organizations  in  Brussels.  Navigation,  the  utilization  of 
rivers,  good  roads,  international  expositions  have  all  had  in- 
ternational consideration. 

Problems  pertaining  to  building  operations,  public  works, 
engineering  undertakings  and  the  like  have  claimed  the  at- 
tention of  nineteen  more  international  groups.  The  manu- 
facturing industry  in  its  various  phases  has  interested  thirty- 
seven  groups.  In  all  we  find  202  groups,  drawn  together  by 
economic  interest,  holding  a  total  of  728  congresses. 

II.    RECREATIONAL  INTEREST 

Play  is  not  only  coming  to  be  recognized  as  having  a  place 
in  the  normal  life  of  man  but  it  is  coming  to  form  a  strong 
international  bond.  The  Olympic  games  of  Greece  were 
marked  by  the  "truce  of  God,"  and  hostilities  were  laid  aside 
while  the  choice  youth  of  the  various  states  struggled  together 
for  the  wreath  of  wild  olive.  Not  less  significant  of  the  time 
when  the  "truce  of  God"  shall  be  made  permanent  and  the 
victories  of  peace  shall  be  esteemed  to  be  more  glorious  than 
the  achievements  of  war,  is  the  revival  of  the  Olympiad  which 
now  opens  its  lists  to  the  competitors  of  all  nations.  Baron 
Pierre  de  Coubertin  was  largely  responsible  for  the  assembling 
in  Paris,  in  1895,  of  an  International  Athletic  Committee  whose 
purpose  was  the  revival  of  the  Olympic  games. 

The  first  modern  Olympiad  was  held  in  Athens  in  1896,  the 
second  in  Paris,  in  the  year  of  the  great  1900  fair,  the  third 
at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  the  fourth  at  London  in  1908,  and  the 
fifth  at  Stockholm  in  1912.  In  the  latter  event  twenty-seven 
different  countries  were  represented.  The  laurels  to  the  world's 
most  perfect  athlete  were  awarded  to  an  American  Indiana  V 
The  honors  of  the  Olympic  events  were  shared  by  the  follow- 
ing nations  in  the  order  named:  Sweden,  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Finland,  Germany,  France,  Denmark,  Hun- 
gary, Norway,  S.  Africa,  Italy,  Australia,  Canada,  Belgium, 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  79 

Russia,  Austria,  Greece  and  Holland.  The  scepter  has  departed 
from  the  Greek  into  the  hands  of  the  "barbarian." 

It  does  not  follow  that  because  men  play  together  they  will 
not  fight  each  other.  But  the  trend  of  things  to-day  all  points 
to  the  probability  that  in  the  future  the  nations  will  play  to- 
gether more  and  fight  less. 

Besides  the  world's  Olympiads,  international  congresses 
have  at  different  times  been  held  upon  foot-ball,  cycling, 
skating,  touring,  bull-fighting,  chess,  fencing,  swimming,  row- 
ing, shooting,  gymnastics,  motoring  and  aviation. 

III.    THE  ARTISTIC  INTEREST 

Art  speaks  an  universal  language.  Science  limps  through 
confused  nomenclature,  various  units  of  measurement,  and 
diverse  tongues.  But  art  walks  erect  into  the  understanding 
of  the  wise  and  the  unlearned.  In  the  art  gallery  all  men  stand 
upon  an  equal  footing  whatever  their  human  speech,  and  the 
rule  of  acquisition  is  'To  each  man  according  to  his  ability." 
Under  the  spell  of  the  symphony  or  oratorio  all  Babel  sounds 
are  hushed  and  the  naked  soul  is  bathed  in  divine  harmonies. 

The  universalizing  power  of  art  has  been  recognized  by  the 
promoters  of  international  fairs  and  expositions.  The  art 
gallery  and  the  music  hall  have  a  universal  message  to  men 
from  the  antipodes.  But  the  treasures  of  art  are  no  longer  con- 
fined to  the  great  galleries  of  Europe.  Through  the  modern 
processes  of  art  reproduction  the  humblest  home  may  possess 
the  pictures  which  have  inspired  men  to  noble  thoughts  and 
purposes.  The  same  may  be  said  for  music  through  the 
medium  of  the  phonograph.  And  the  film  is  carrying  into  the 
most  remote  hamlet  the  daily  happenings  of  the  world  and 
translating  them  without  the  medium  of  langauge  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  simplest.  While  we  are  waiting  for  the  coming 
of  a  world  language  the  camera  is  enabling  the  world  to  put 
into  effect  the  Socratic  injunction,  "Know  thyself." 


80  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

Under  the  Artistic  Interest  we  may  classify  thirty-seven 
groups  covering  art,  music,  the  drama,  municipal  art  and  city- 
planning,  the  protection  of  the  landscape  from  commercial 
disfigurement  and  the  general  cultivation  of  the  aesthetic 
sense. 

IV.    SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST 

The  largest  number  of  congresses  is  in  the  realm  of  the 
scientific  interest.  In  this  category  have  been  placed  the  pure 
sciences,  applied  science,  medical  science,  bibliography,  phil- 
ology and  jurisprudence.  Under  this  broad  classification  in- 
ternational organization  and  deliberation  claim  238  groups 
which  have  met  from  one  to  many  times,  most  of  which  have 
permanent  organizations.  The  whole  range  of  human  know- 
ledge is  covered  by  the  various  international  congresses  at- 
tended by  the  foremost  scholars  of  all  nations  of  the  world. 

Two  distinct  aims  may  be  noted  in  these  world  gatherings. 
The  first  is  to  introduce  all  the  evidence,  made  available 
through  the  studies  of  trained  observers  in  every  part  of  the 
world,  as  the  basis  for  rational  and  valid  generalizations.  The 
whole  world  has  become  a  laboratory  and  theories  and  hypo- 
theses are  being  corrected  by  facts  gathered  from  pole  to  pole. 
History  is  being  rewritten  from  the  buried  records  of  the  past. 
The  forces  of  nature  are  being  harnessed  to  lift  the  burdens 
from  the  shoulders  of  enslaved  humanity  that  man  may  rise 
to  his  spiritual  birthright.  The  physical  ills  that  flesh  is  heir 
to  are  yielding  to  control  and  the  span  of  human  life  is  lengthen- 
ing. The  primary  need  is  the  introduction  of  all  the  evidence. 
And  this  can  only  happen  when  the  trained  minds  of  all  nations 
meet  and  compare  notes. 

The  second  aim  is  to  coordinate  the  work  of  science  through 
the  adoption  of  universally  recognized  units  and  nomencla- 
ture. This  attempt  at  unification  is  noticeable  in  every  de- 
partment of  scientific  effort.  Two  specific  instances  will  suffice 
as  illustrations.  Early  in  the  study  of  electricity  it  was 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  81 

recognized  that  advance  in  the  science  required  the  establish- 
ment of  a  universal  unit  of  measurement  for  electric  forces. 
Four  international  congresses  were  held  in  1882,  1884,  1905 
and  1908,  participated  in  by  scientists  from  thirty-five  dif- 
ferent countries,  including  China  and  Japan.  Three  com- 
missions were  charged  with  the  task  of  submitting  units  for 
measuring  the  electric  current.  The  result  was  the  adoption 
of  the  ohm,  ampere,  volt  and  watt. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  revise  scientific  no- 
menclature. In  1892  the  International  Congress  of  Botany 
appointed  a  commission  to  standardize  the  nomenclature  of 
botany.  In  1878  the  International  Congress  of  Geology  estab- 
lished a  commission  to  unify  the  nomenclature  of  geology. 
Similar  action  was  taken  by  the  International  Congress  of 
Geography,  in  1899,  to  establish  a  nomenclature  for  ocean- 
ography. The  International  Congress  of  Zoology,  in  1892, 
adopted  a  terminology  for  that  science  which  was  subsequently 
supplemented. 

Enough  has  been  said  perhaps  to  reveal  the  awareness  upon 
the  part  of  all  scientists  that  progress  in  their  particular  lines 
of  research  imperatively  demands  the  unified  and  intelligent 
cooperation  of  all  observers.  Collaboration  must  be  world  wide. 

V.    THE  EDUCATIONAL  INTEREST 

When  we  come  to  the  question  of  education  we  find  that 
thirty-seven  groups  of  international  congresses  have  been  held 
to  discuss  questions  pertaining  to  primary,  secondary  and 
higher  education,  physical,  technical  and  commercial  training, 
medical  and  moral  education,  teaching  of  design,  school  ad- 
ministration, popular  universities  and  many  other  allied  topics. 
The  tremendous  problems  of  popular  education  need  for  their 
solution  the  combined  wisdom  of  the  most  experienced  educa- 
tors of  the  world. 

The  Central  American  Republics  were  so  alive  to  the  need 
of  popular  education  as  the  handmaid  to  democracy  that  in 


82  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

1908  they  formed  the  Central  American  Pedagogical  Institute 
for  the  purpose  of  "establishing  a  common,  essentially  homo- 
geneous system  of  education  which  may  tend  toward  the 
moral  and  intellectual  unification  of  these  sister  countries." 
When  it  is  realized  that  all  those  nations  which  are  now 
arising  out  of  a  stagnation  largely  due  to  inadequate  educa- 
tional systems,  must  be  given  a  "common,  essentially  homo- 
geneous system  of  education"  before  the  masses  of  their  citizens 
can  be  rendered  capable  of  self-government,  the  task  before 
the  educational  forces  of  the  world  can  be  faintly  appreciated. 
Democracy  can  only  hope  to  maintain  itself  through  the  educa- 
tion of  the  masses.  With  the  changing  social  and  industrial 
conditions,  wise  changes  in  old  standards  and  norms  must 
come.  This  is  a  world-task,  a  task  for  the  new  internationalism. 

VI.    THE  RELIGIOUS  INTEREST 

The  position  is  now  taken  by  some  leading  sociologists  that 
it  was  the  religious  interest  which  brought  primitive  men  to- 
gether in  the  earliest  forms  of  association.  However  that  may 
be,  it  can  hardly  be  gainsaid  that  it  forms  the  strongest  bond 
which  unites  men  today,  especially  when  they  belong  to  dif- 
ferent races. 

A  review  of  the  international  religious  congresses  may  be 
conveniently  treated  under  three  heads;  sectarian,  unsec- 
tarian  and  interdenominational  associations. 

1 .  Sectarian  Associations.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is 
itself  something  more  than  international,  it  is  intra-national. 
It  is  an  imperiwn  in  imperio.  Perhaps,  in  view  of  the  sweep- 
ing political  changes  of  the  past  century,  especially  in  the 
western  world,  it  may  also  be  spoken  of  as  an  imperium  in 
republica.  Its  Eucharistic  Congresses,  which  have  been  held 
at  short  intervals  since  1881,  partake  of  the  nature  of  inter- 
national assemblies.  The  Katholisch-padagogischer  Weltver- 
band  has  been  organized  to  advance  Christian  education  in 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  83 

opposition  to  the  free  school.  There  is  in  Rome  an  Inter- 
national Catholic  Institute  for  the  advancement  of  science 
and  learning  according  to  the  viewpoint  of  the  church. 

A  body  calling  themselves  Old  Catholics  have,  since  1872, 
held  successive  international  congresses.  The  delegates  have 
gathered  largely  from  Germany,  Austria,  England,  Russia, 
Switzerland  and  Holland. 

Many  of  the  Protestant  bodies  have  international  organ- 
izations. Those  churches  holding  the  reformed  faith  meet 
from  time  to  time  in  the  Pan  Presbyterian  Council  which  was 
organized  in  1875.  Its  last  meeting  was  in  Edinburgh  in  1913. 

The  Baptist  World  Alliance  was  constituted  in  1905  and 
meets  quinquennially.  The  first  meeting  of  the  Ecumenical 
Methodist  Conference  was  held  in  New  York  in  1892.  It 
meets  every  ten  years.  The  Congregationalists  gather  in  a 
World's  Council.  Meetings  were  held  in  Boston  in  1899  and 
Edinburgh  in  1908.  The  International  Council  of  Unitarians 
was  formed  in  Boston  in  1 900.  The  Christian  Scientists  held  an 
international  meeting  in  Christiania  in  1911.  The  General 
Ecumenical  Conference  of  the  Lutheran  Church  held  its  four- 
teenth meeting  in  1913  at  Nuremberg. 

There  are  two  international  associations  among  those  hold- 
ing the  Jewish  faith.  The  first  is  the  Alliance  Israelite  Uni- 
Verselle,  founded  in  Paris  in  1860,  for  the  purpose  of  amelio- 
rating the  condition  of  the  oppressed  Jews.  The  Alliance 
holds  a  yearly  congress.  The  second  is  the  Zionist  movement 
which  seeks  to  re-establish  a  Jewish  state  in  Palestine.  The 
first  congress  was  held  in  Basel  in  1897,  and  the  meetings  are 
now  held  every  two  years.  It  has  a  permanent  bureau  at 
Cologne  called  the  Zionistisches  Centralbureau. 

There  might  be  grouped  under  the  general  term  of  "oc- 
cultism" the  so-called  "spiritualists"  and  the  theosophists. 
The  Spiritualists  have  held  international  congresses  at  Paris 
in  1889  and  1900.  At  a  Congress  in  Brussels,  in  1910,  it  was 
decided  to  hold  triennial  meetings.  It  has  a  Permanent 


84  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

International  Bureau  of  Spiritism.  The  Theosophical  Society 
is  an  international  organization.  There  is  also  The  Independent 
Theosophical  League.  Both  of  these  societies  have  their 
headquarters  in  India. 

There  might  also  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  The 
International  Federation  of  Free  Thinkers  which  has  held 
frequent  congresses  since  1 880. 

2.  Interdenominational.  The  Evangelical  Alliance  was 
formed  in  1846,  at  London,  when  there  were  present  800  dele- 
gates representing  fifty  denominations.  The  "evangelical  basis" 
was  then  established  which  postulates  the  inspiration  of  the 
Bible,  the  right  of  private  judgment,  the  doctrine  of  the 
trinity,  human  depravity,  the  mediatorial  work  of  Christ  as 
the  Son  of  God,  justification  by  faith,  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  and  the  last  judgment,  and  the  perpetual  obligation  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  has  generally  been 
accepted  as  the  doctrinal  basis  for  the  affiliation  of  all  the  so- 
called  Evangelical  Protestant  denominations. 

Upon  the  evangelical  basis  the  various  organizations  for 
young  people  were  federated  in  1855,  at  an  international  con- 
gress held  in  Paris.  The  association  is  known  as  the  Alliance 
Universelle  des  Unions  Chretiennes  de  Jeanes  Gens.  This 
federation  includes  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations 
of  the  world.  The  permanent  committee,  with  headquarters 
in  Geneva,  is  generally  known  upon  this  side  as  the  World's 
Committee. 

At  the  first  congress  in  1855,  eight  countries  were  repre- 
sented having  329  associations  and  30,360  members.  At  the 
seventeenth  meeting,  held  in  Edinburgh  in  1913,  there  were 
reported  8,584  associations,  in  forty-six  different  countries, 
with  a  membership  of  over  1,100,000. 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  were  feder- 
ated in  1898  at  an  international  congress  held  in  London. 
A  World's  Committee  with  headquarters  in  London  directs 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  85 

the  work  of  the  federation.  The  associations  have  a  member- 
ship of  590,000  in  forty-three  different  countries  of  the 
world. 

The  World's  Sunday  School  Association  was  formed  at 
Chautauqua  in  1 886.  The  seventh  world  convention  was  held 
in  Zurich,  in  1913,  and  was  attended  by  2,600  delegates  from 
seventy  countries.  The  number  of  Protestant  Sunday-school 
scholars  is  now  28,701,489,  a  gain  of  690,295  in  three  years. 
The  following  countries  have  more  than  10%  of  their  popu- 
lation enrolled  in  Sunday  schools:  Samoan  Islands  (29%), 
Great  Britain,  Fiji  Islands,  Newfoundland,  the  United  States, 
Porto  Rico  and  Canada.1 

The  Christian  Endeavor  Society,  which  began  its  history 
in  1881,  assumed  world-wide  relations  in  1895.  World  con- 
ventions have  been  held  in  London  1900,  Geneva  1906,  and 
Agra  1909.  In  1911  the  society  reported  79,077  organizations 
with  3,953,850  members. 

The  most  comprehensive  organization  of  the  Protestant 
missionary  forces  in  the  world  is  the  World's  Missionary  Con- 
ference. International  missionary  meetings  were  held  in  New 
York  in  1850,  in  Liverpool  in  1860,  in  London  in  1878.  Ten 
years  later  London  was  again  the  meeting  place  of  a  confer- 
ence at  which  there  were  representatives  present  from  fifty- 
three  British  societies,  sixty-seven  American,  eighteen  con- 
tinental and  two  colonial  societies.  At  New  York,  in  1900, 
there  were  1 ,500  delegates  representing  1 1 5  societies  in  forty- 
eight  different  countries.  The  conference  at  Edinburgh,  in 
1910,  enrolled  more  than  1,200  delegates  from  forty-six  British 
societies,  sixty  American,  forty-one  continental  and  twelve 
South  African  and  Australian  societies.2 

At  the  Edinburgh  conference  there  was  appointed  a  Con- 
tinuation Committee  of  international  composition  to  further 
the  work  of  the  body  in  the  interim  between  conferences.  Its 

1  The  Missionary  Review,  26:773. 

2  Report  World  Missionary  Conference,  1910,  Vol.  IX. 


86  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

headquarters  are  in  Edinburgh.  Growing  out  of  this  con- 
ference is  the  International  Mission  Study  Council  to  promote 
the  study  of  missions.  A  conference  was  held  in  1911  at  Lun- 
teren,  Holland.  In  its  present  development  the  missionary 
operations  of  the  Protestant  church  have  been  extended  to 
every  country  in  the  world.  More  than  340  societies  are  at 
work,  employing  more  than  24,000  foreign  missionaries,  not 
to  mention  the  native  force,  and  expending  annually  more 
than  $38,000,000. 

In  view  of  the  extension  of  the  work  to  earth's  remotest 
bounds,  the  devoted  work  of  the  missionaries  along  educa- 
tional, medical  and  industrial  lines,  as  well  as  the  preaching 
of  a  universal  Gospel,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  is  the  greatest 
force  in  the  world  today  for  bringing  about  an  internation- 
alism based  upon  the  brotherhood  of  man. 

3.  Unsectarian  Associations.  In  connection  with  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago,  in  1893,  there 
was  held  a  World's  Parliament  of  Religions  to  which  refer- 
ence has  already  been  made.  One  of  the  outgrowths  of  that 
parliament  was  the  establishment  of  a  foundation  for  sending 
to  the  orient  noted  men  who  should  present  in  a  broad  way 
the  claims  of  Christianity  upon  the  thought  of  the  non-Christ- 
ian educated  classes.  Dr.  John  Henry  Barrows  was  the  first 
to  fill  the  duties  of  the  position. 

The  Salvation  Army,  founded  in  London  in  1 865  by  William 
Booth,  has  extended  its  operations  to  thirty-nine  countries  and 
delivers  its  message  in  thirty-four  languages. 

The  interest  aroused  in  the  various  religions  of  the  world 
by  the  World's  Parliament  of  Religions  led  to  the  calling  of 
an  International  Congress  of  the  History  of  Religion  at  Paris 
in  1900.  The  object  of  these  congresses,  of  which  four  have 
been  held,  is  to  make  a  scientific  study  of  the  ethnic  religions. 
The 'Congress  convenes  every  four  years  and  has  a  permanent 
committee. 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  87 

VII.  THE  SOCIAL  INTEREST 

Under  the  social  interest  it  will  be  convenient  to  include 
both  the  international  groups  for  the  study  of  social  conditions 
and  those  for  planning  and  executing  measures  for  social  better- 
ment. Three  or  four  groups  for  scientific  investigation  will 
first  be  mentioned  and  then  attention  will  be  given  to  those 
which  propose  definite  action. 

The  basis  for  a  scientific  study  of  social  phenomena  must 
lie  in  statistics.  At  the  first  international  exposition  in  Lon- 
don, in  1851,  the  possibility  of  bringing  the  statisticians  of  the 
various  nations  together  was  discussed,  and  the  Belgian  govern- 
ment took  the  lead  in  inviting  an  International  Congress  of 
Statistics  to  meet  in  Brussels  in  1853.  A  celebrated  Belgian 
statistician,  Quetelet,  was  president  of  the  congress.  Nine 
international  congresses  were  held  up  to  and  including  1876, 
after  which  they  were  discontinued.  But  in  1885  the  per- 
manent International  Institute  of  Statistics  was  formed  with 
headquarters  at  the  Hague,  and  holds  a  congress  every  two 
years. 

In  1862  there  was  formed  at  Brussels  an  International 
Association  for  Progress  in  the  Social  Sciences,  which  held 
several  successive  meetings.  In  1894  there  was  formed  at 
Paris  the  International  Institute  of  Sociology  with  a  perma- 
nent bureau.  A  congress  is  held  every  three  years.  There 
was  organized  in  Stuttgart,  in  1903,  the  International  In- 
stitute for  the  Study  of  the  Problem  of  the  Middle  Classes 
which  has  a  permanent  bureau  located  in  Brussels. 

Those  groups  having  some  more  or  less  definite  plan  in  view 
for  the  betterment  of  social  conditions  may  be  considered 
under  five  sub-divisions,  viz.:  those  relating  to  (1)  industrial 
life,  (2)  public  health,  (3)  charity  and  relief,  (4)  public  morals, 
and  (5)  world  peace. 

1.  Industrial  Life.  In  1864  the  International  Working- 
men's  Association  was  formed  in  London  which  declared  that 


88  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  emancipation  of  labor  required  the  cooperation  of  the  men 
of  all  nations.  The  last  congress  of  this  association  was  held 
in  1877.  Since  1889  the  socialists  have  held  international 
congresses  at  intervals  of  about  two  years.  In  1900  the  In- 
ternational Bureau  of  Socialism  was  established  with  head- 
quarters at  Brussels  and  acts  as  a  bond  between  the  socialists 
of  all  countries. 

Syndicalism,  which  is  more  radical  than  socialism  in  its 
program  for  the  subversion  of  the  present  industrial  order  by 
4 'direct  action,"  finds  its  international  manifestation  in  the 
Secretariat  International  des  Federations  Syndicates  nationales 
with  headquarters  in  Berlin.  The  first  International  Con- 
ference of  Syndical  Workers  was  held  in  Copenhagen  in  1901. 
Seven  international  congresses  have  been  held. 

The  Paris  Universal  Exposition  has  already  been  shown  to 
have  been  the  mother  of  many  international  congresses.  In 
1889  a  congress  was  held  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the 
building  of  cheap  homes  for  the  working  classes.  This  Con- 
gres  International  des  Habitations  a  bon  marche  has  held  nine 
meetings  to  the  present  time.  During  the  same  exposition  an 
International  Congress  on  Industrial  Accidents  was  held  which 
was  later  extended  to  include  social  insurance.  The  congress 
is  now  called  the  Congress  of  Social  Insurance  and  has  a  perma- 
nent international  committee  with  headquarters  at  Paris. 

Growing  out  of  the  success  of  the  Rochdale  plan  of  coopera- 
tive stores  in  England  there  was  formed,  in  1895,  at  London, 
the  International  Cooperative  Alliance  for  the  purpose  of 
advancing  the  plan  of  establishing  cooperative  stores  in  all 
countries.  Eight  international  congresses  have  been  held 
and  there  is  a  central  committee  located  in  London.1 

The  convoking  of  an  International  Labor  Conference  by 
the  German  Emperor  at  Berlin  in  1890,  has  already  been 
referred  to.  The  question  of  labor  legislation  engaged  the 
attention  then  and  at  succeeding  conferences  in  1897,  and 

1     Annuaire  du  Mouvement  Cooperatif  internationale,  IQIO. 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  89 

1900.  At  the  latter  was  formed  the  International  Associa- 
tion for  Labor  Legislation  which  has  considered  at  various 
congresses  such  questions  as  the  night  work  of  women  and 
children,  the  abolition  of  white  phosphorous  in  the  manu- 
facture of  matches,  lead  poisoning  and  other  occupational 
diseases,  limitation  of  the  working  day,  child  labor,  etc.  The 
association  supports  a  permanent  bureau  at  Basel. 

There  was  founded  in  1894  the  International  Colonial  Insti- 
tute for  studying  industrial,  commercial,  educational  and 
moral  problems  presented  by  various  colonies  and  their  native 
races.  It  has  an  international  bureau  at  Brussels. 

The  Paris  Exposition  of  1900  was  the  occasion  for  the  con- 
vening of  many  international  congresses.  Four  may  be  men- 
tioned in  this  connection:  Congres  international  de  la  mutualite, 
Congres  International  du  Credit  Populaire,  Congres  International 
des  Societes  Co-operatives  de  Consommation,  Congres  des  Associa- 
tion ouvrieres  de  Production,  Confederation  Internationale  des 
Societes  Co-operative  Agricoles.  The  object  of  these  congresses 
was  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  cooperative  movement 
among  the  working  classes. 

The  importance  of  the  question  of  unemployment  and  its 
international  bearings  received  recognition  by  the  assembling 
of  a  conference  at  Paris,  in  1909,  on  unemployment  which  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  Association  Internationale  pour 
la  lutte  contre  le  chomage.  Its  object  is  to  coordinate  the  work 
in  various  countries  looking  to  improving  conditions  which 
seasonal  trades  and  consequent  unemployment  induce.  A 
permanent  committee  was  appointed  with  headquarters  at  Paris. 

The  Congres  de  la  Propriete  Miniere,  du  Travail,  de  I' Hygiene 
et  de  la  Securite  dans  les  Mines,  which  met  for  the  first  time 
in  Lille,  France,  in  1 908,  has  among  its  objects  the  minimizing 
of  the  dangers  incident  to  mining  operations.  Yearly  meet- 
ings are  held. 

The  Consumers'  League  of  the  United  States,  Germany, 
France  and  Switzerland  entered  into  an  international 


90  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

organization  at  a  conference  held  in  Geneva  in  1908.  These 
leagues  aim  at  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  working 
women  through  the  use  of  the  "white  label"  and  by  other 
means. 

The  problems  presented  by  home  industry,  associated  as 
it  is  with  the  system  of  "sweating,"  were  studied  at  the  Con- 
gres  international  du  Travail  a  domicile  which  was  held  in  con- 
nection with  the  Brussels  International  Exposition  in  1910. 
An  international  office  was  established  in  Brussels. 

An  International  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Sponge 
Fishermen  was  formed  in  1911  at  Canea,  Crete.  Its  object 
is  to  improve  the  industry  of  sponge-fishing  in  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Gulf  ^f  Mexico  and  to  assist  disabled  fisher- 
men, who  are  especially  liable  to  paralysis  due  to  their  trade, 
and  to  make  provision  for  their  widows  and  orphans. 

The  feminist  movement,  which  is  both  industrial  and  politi- 
cal, might  be  mentioned  here.  In  1878  the  first  Congres  fern- 
iniste  international  convened  in  Paris.  At  a  subsequent  con- 
gress in  Washington,  in  1888,  there  was  formed  the  Inter- 
national Council  of  Women  to  be  the  central  organ  in  the 
federation  of  the  women's  clubs  and  organizations  in  all 
countries.  International  congresses  are  held  every  five  years. 

The  first  international  woman's  suffrage  congress  was  held 
in  Washington  in  1902.  At  the  next  congress,  in  Berlin  in 
1904,  the  International  Woman  Suffrage  Alliance  was  formed 
and  a  quinquennial  convention  provided  for.  In  London,  in 
1909,  it  was  reported  that  the  Alliance  had  grown  from  eight 
national  societies  in  1904,  to  twenty-one  societies  in  1909. 
At  the  congress  in  Stockholm,  in  1911,  there  was  created  an 
Alliance  internationale  des  hommes  pom  le  suffrage  des  fern" 
mes,  to  unite  the  men  of  all  nations  who  are  in  favor  of  woman 
suffrage. 

2.  Public  Health.  The  period  under  consideration  has 
been  marked  by  many  efforts  to  improve  the  public  health 
by  measures  to  prevent  the  spread  of  plagues,  the  scientific 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  91 

study  of  disease  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  upon  hygienic 
questions. 

At  the  invitation  of  a  Belgian  society  there  was  held  in 
Brussels  in  1876,  the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene  and 
Demography.  The  fifteenth  international  congress  was  held 
in  Washington  in  1912  and  was  attended  by  representatives 
from  all  the  principal  countries  of  the  world. 

Other  international  congresses  have  been  held  upon  such 
special  topics  as  diet,  vegetarianism,  the  hygiene  of  railways 
and  vessels  and  upon  street  noises.  Several  congresses  have 
been  held  since  1889  on  the  general  topic  of  life-saving  and 
others  upon  rescue  work  at  sea  and  at  fires. 

It  might  scarcely  be  thought  that  the  matter  of  the  de- 
struction of  rats  was  important  enough  to  warrant  the  for- 
mation of  an  international  association.  But  the  discovery  of 
the  agency  of  the  rat  in  the  spread  of  epidemics,  as  well  as 
its  general  destructiveness,  has  made  its  extermination  a 
matter  of  public  welfare.  After  a  study  of  the  question  by 
a  Danish  committee  there  was  held  in  Copenhagen,  in  1911, 
an  Exposition  international  d'appareils  pom  la  destruction 
des  rats,  which  might  be  freely  translated  an  International 
Exposition  of  Rat  Traps.  The  result  has  been  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Association  International  pour  la  destruction  ra- 
tionnelle  des  rats,  with  an  international  commission  located 
in  Copenhagen  charged  with  the  duty  of  conducting  a  relent- 
less war  upon  the  rat.  The  grasshopper,  the  mosquito  and 
the  fly  have  also  found  a  place  in  international  deliberations. 

The  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  centruy  was  remarkable 
for  the  concerted  efforts  of  many  nations  to  discover  the  causes 
of  baffling  diseases  and  the  means  for  combatting  them.  Con- 
gresses for  the  study  of  tuberculosis  had  been  held  since  1888,1 
but  in  1902  there  was  formed  in  Berlin  the  International  Anti- 
Tuberculosis  Association  which  has  held  annual  meetings  in 


Congres  pour  U  Etude  de  la  Tuberculose,  Paris,  1888. 


92  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

various  cities.1  In  1905  an  International  Congress  on  Tuber- 
culosis was  held  in  Paris  composed  of  delegates  from  govern- 
ments, universities  and  various  associations.2  Triennial 
meetings  of  this  congress  have  been  held  in  Washington  in 
1 908  and  in  Rome  in  1911.  The  Universal  White  Cross  Society 
was  formed  in  Geneva  in  1907  to  combat  tuberculosis,  cancer, 
syphilis  and  other  infectious  diseases,  as  well  as  food 
frauds. 

Occupational  diseases  received  the  attention  of  international 
congresses  in  1906,  1910  and  1913.  At  the  International 
Congress  of  Alienists  in  Milan,  1906,  there  was  formed  an 
International  Institute  for  the  Study  of  the  Causes  of  Mental 
Diseases  and  their  Prophylaxis.  An  international  conference 
was  held  in  Heidelberg,  in  1906,  for  the  study  of  cancer  and 
an  international  association  formed.  Epilepsy  has  been  the 
subject  of  three  international  congresses  the  first  being  held 
in  Budapest  in  1909. 

Three  congresses,  the  first  in  Nuremberg,  in  1903,  have 
considered  the  hygiene  of  schools,  and  since  1904  four  con- 
gresses have  been  held  to  promote  housing  hygiene. 

The  reduction  of  infant  mortality  was  the  concern  of  the 
Congres  International  des  Gouttes  de  lait  which  was  held  in 
Paris  in  1905.  At  the  second  session,  in  Brussels  in  1907, 
there  was  formed  the  Union  International  pour  la  protection 
de  I'enfance  du  premier  age.  A  permanent  bureau  is  main- 
tained in  Brussels.  The  protection  of  the  mother  and  sexual 
reform  are  the  objects  aimed  at  by  the  International  Vereini" 
gung  fiir  Mutterschutz  und  Sexualreform  which  was  formed  in 
Dresden  in  1911. 

3.  Charity  and  Relief.  Organized  charity  was  made  the 
object  of  the  Congres  International  de  Bienfaisance  which  met 
in  Brussels  in  18567  In  1889  the  name  was  changed  to  the 

1  Handworterbuch  der  Sozialen  Hygiene,  Vol.  2,  p.  635. 

2  Kept.  Williams  and  Bulstrode  to  the  International  Congress  on  Tuberculosis, 

Paris,  1905. 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  93 

Congres  d' assistance  publique  et  privee,  and  in  1900  an  inter- 
national committee  was  appointed  composed  of  sixty  members 
chosen  from  twenty-two  countries,  with  headquarters  in  Paris. 
Such  topics  have  been  discussed  as  the  object  and  limitation  of 
public  health,  preventive  work,  neglected  children,  rehabilita- 
tion of  discharged  convicts,  out-door  relief,  charity  organiza- 
tion, tuberculosis,  protection  of  girls,  infant  mortality,  etc. 

In  1877  the  Union  International  des  Amies  de  la  Jeune  Fille 
was  formed  at  Neuchatel  to  provide  protection  for  girls  leaving 
home  in  search  of  employment.  Six  international  congresses 
have  been  held.  Agents  are  stationed  in  many  of  the  principal 
European  railway  stations  to  assist  any  girls  who  may  require 
their  aid.  A  central  bureau  is  maintained  at  Neuchatel.  In 
1897  an  international  Catholic  association  for  the  protection 
of  girls  was  formed  with  headquarters  in  Fribourg,  Switzerland. 

The  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  blind  has  en- 
grossed the  attention  of  six  sessions  of  the  Congres  International 
pour  I  Amelioration  du  sort  des  Aveugles,  the  first  convening  in 
Paris  in  1889.  The  first  of  several  international  congresses  of 
deaf  mutes  was  held  in  Paris  in  1878. 

In  1889  the  Societe  Internationale  pour  I* etude  des  Questions 
/Assistance  was  formed  in  Paris.  Its  object  is  to  investigate 
the  best  methods  in  various  countries  for  the  abolition  of 
poverty.  A  bureau  is  located  in  Paris. 

In  1902  the  Congres  International  a" assistance  aux  Alienes 
was  held  for  the  purpose  of  studying  questions  relating  to 
insanity  and  the  care  of  the  insane. 

4.  Public  Morals.  Human  slavery  was  one  of  the  first  social 
questions  to  receive  international  attention.  The  British  and 
Foreign  Anti-Slavery  Society  was  founded  in  1837,  and  it  has 
continued  its  agitation  against  slavery  to  the  present  day.  In 
1909  it  was  fused  with  The  Aborigines  Protective  Society  and 
took  the  name  of  the  Anti-Slavery  and  Aborigines  Protective 
Society. 


94  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  temperance  question  has  been  the  paramount  concern 
of  sixteen  groups  of  international  congresses.  The  Order  of 
Good  Templars,  founded  in  the  United  States  in  1 842,  became 
an  international  order  in  1852.  As  early  as  1878  an  inter- 
national congress  was  held  in  Paris  to  study  the  temperance 
question.  Since  1885  meetings  have  been  held  biennially. 
At  the  congress  at  Brussels  in  1897  there  was  formed  the 
Ligue  Internationale  contre  tabus  des  Boissons  spiritueuses 
which  maintains  a  permanent  committee  in  Berlin.  At  the 
congress  in  Stockholm,  in  1907,  there  was  created  the  Inter- 
national Temperance  Bureau  for  the  collection  of  a  library 
upon  the  subject  and  for  carrying  on  a  campaign  of  education 
by  means  of  the  press.  Another  organization  arising  out  of 
the  anti-alcoholic  congresses  is  the  International  Prohibitionist 
Federation  which  was  formed  after  the  London  congress  of 
1909.  Its  affairs  are  controlled  by  an  international  executive 
committee  with  offices  in  London.  The  Federation  has  vice- 
presidents  in  forty  countries.  At  the  same  London  congress 
the  International  Catholic  Temperance  League  was  formed. 
In  connection  with  this  league  is  the  International  Committee 
of  Abstinent  Priests. 

The  World's  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union  was 
organized  in  1883  by  Frances  E.  Willard.  Eight  international 
conferences  have  been  held,  four  in  America  and  four  in 
Europe.  The  Union  has  a  European  office  in  Ripley,  England, 
and  an  American  office  in  Evanston,  Illinois. 

The  Blue  Cross  Society  is  a  temperance  organization  origi- 
nating in  Switzerland,  in  1877,  which  became  an  international 
federation  in  1886.  The  federated  societies  are  scattered 
through  European  countries  and  its  headquarters  are  in  Geneva. 

At  the  International  Temperance  Congress  held  in  Sche- 
veningen  in  1911  there  was  formed  the  International  Federa- 
tion for  the  Protection  of  Native  Races  against  Alcohol. 

The  repression  of  vice  has  received  the  attention  of  several 
groups.  In  1875  the  Federation  abolitionniste  Internationale 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  95 

was  formed  in  London  and  it  pronounced  the  official  regu- 
lation of  vice  as  "a  hygienic  error,  a  social  injustice,  a  moral 
monstrosity  and  a  judicial  crime/'  Eleven  international 
congresses  have  been  held,  and  the  federation  points  to  the 
results  of  its  work  in  the  abolition  of  the  regulation  of  prosti- 
tution in  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Norway  (except  Tron- 
djem),  Holland  (except  Geneva),  and  Finland.  Its  head- 
quarters are  in  Geneva. 

The  International  Association  for  the  Suppression  of  the 
White  Slave  Traffic  was  organized  in  London,  in  1 899,  through 
the  efforts  of  the  National  Vigilance  Association  of  that  city. 
An  international  bureau  is  located  in  London  composed  of 
eight  English  members  and  one  delegate  from  each  of  the 
eleven  national  bureaus. 

An  effort  to  suppress  immoral  literature  has  been  made 
by  two  congresses  held  at  Lausanne  in  1893  and  at  Cologne 
in  1904.  A  different  congress  against  pornography  was  held 
in  Paris  in  1908.  This  latter  was  instrumental  in  securing 
the  governmental  conference  looking  to  the  suppression  of 
obscene  literature  already  noted. 

As  early  as  1846  the  question  of  prison  reform  engaged  the 
attention  of  an  international  congress  held  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  and  also  a  second  held  the  following  year  at  Brussels. 
Beginning  with  1 872  a  fresh  interest  in  the  question  was  mani- 
fested, and  in  1880  a  constitution  was  adopted  providing  for 
a  permanent  commission  and  for  an  international  congress 
every  five  years.  The  headquarters  of  the  commission  are  at 
Brussels.  Related  to  the  work  of  the  Prison  Congresses  is 
the  rehabilitation  of  convicts  and  the  finding  of  employment 
for  them  upon  their  release.  The  first  international  congress 
dealing  with  this  question  was  held  at  Antwerp  in  1890.  At 
the  second  congress,  in  1894,  the  Union  Internationale  des 
Patronages  was  formed  by  delegates  from  fifteen  countries. 
At  the  fifth  meeting  of  the  Union,  in  1911,  representatives 


96  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

from  eighteen  nations  were  present.  The  office  of  the  perma- 
nent commission  is  in  Brussels. 

The  first  International  Congress  of  Criminal  Anthropology 
was  held  at  Rome  in  1885.  Since  then  six  congresses  have 
been  held,  all  in  Europe.  The  Union  Internationale  de  Droit 
Penal  was  formed  at  Brussels  in  1889  for  the  study  of  crime, 
its  causes  and  prevention,  and  criminal  procedure.  Numerous 
sessions  have  been  held  and  twenty-six  countries  are  repre- 
sented in  the  union. 

The  treatment  of  youthful  delinquents  had  been  a  topic 
of  discussion  for  several  years  in  the  above  union,  but  in  191 1 
a  special  international  congress  was  held  in  Paris  to  delibe- 
rate upon  the  question  of  juvenile  courts.  Eleven  European 
states  were  represented  by  350  delegates. 

5.  Peace.  The  question  of  world  peace  was  one  of  the 
first  to  engage  the  attention  of  an  international  congress. 
In  1843  the  first  International  Peace  Congress  was  held  in 
London.  There  have  been  twenty-eight  congresses  held  in 
all.  In  1891  it  was  decided  to  establish  the  Permanent  In- 
ternational Bureau  of  Peace  which  has  headquarters  in  Berne. 

Thei)eace  movement  has  grown  in  all  the  principal  countries 
of  the  world  and  there  are  now  more  than  120  general  peace 
societies  with  numerous  branches  in  twenty-eight  countries. 
The  pacifist  press  now  numbers  twenty-five  periodicals  in 
eleven  countries  and  three  international  publications. 

An  important  pacifist  group  is  the  Inter-parliamentary 
Union  formed  in  Paris  in  1889.  Any  member  of  a  national 
parliament  or  congress  is  eligible  for  membership  and  may 
retain  his  membership  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office. 
The  Union  was  instrumental  in  shaping  the  deliberations  of 
the  First  Hague  Conference,  and  at  its  meeting  in  St.  Louis,  in 
1904,  it  adopted  resolutions  suggesting  that  President  Roose- 
velt propose  to  the  powers  the  convening  of  the  Second  Hague 
Conference.  In  1911  the  Union  was  made  up  of  members 
from  the  national  congresses  and  parliaments  of  twenty-one 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES  97 

sovereign  states.  The  Inter-parliamentary  Council  is  com- 
posed of  two  members  from  each  country  represented  in  the 
Union.  A  permanent  bureau  is  located  in  Brussels. 

The  review  which  we  have  made  of  the  various  international 
conferences  and  congresses,  while  confessedly  incomplete, 
must  have  impressed  one  with  the  extent  and  complexity  of 
that  internationalism  which  has  arisen  almost  entirely  within 
the  last  half-century.  It  has  been  seen  that  there  is  much 
overlapping  of  work  with  resulting  waste  of  effort. 

The  need  of  coordination  in  the  work  of  the  various  inter- 
national congresses  and  associations  led  to  the  formation  in 
Brussels  of  the  Union  des  Associations  Internationales. 

The  object  of  the  Union  des  Associations  Internationales 
is  stated  to  be:  (1)  to  study  the  facts  of  international  life; 
(2)  to  promote  the  unification  of  the  activities  of  the  various 
groups  and  the  coordination  of  their  efforts;  (3)  to  establish 
permanent  relations  between  these  organizations,  encourage 
the  creation  of  permanent  bureaus  and  such  limitation  of  their 
fields  of  action  as  will  avoid  overlapping;  (4)  to  promote  uni- 
fication of  methods,  standards  and  terminology;  (5)  to  create 
an  international  center  for  the  collection  of  data  and  docu- 
ments, bearing  on  international  questions,  in  such  a  way  as 
to  advance  the  great  world  interests;  (6)  to  contribute  in  all 
these  ways  to  the  development  of  the  spirit  of  internationalism 
by  offering  to  the  whole  world  the  benefits  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced knowledge  and  thus  aid  in  establishing  lasting  peace 
among  the  nations.1 

This  is  a  large  idea  boldly  conceived  and  by  its  very  magni- 
tude it  challenges  the  admiration  of  every  large-minded  person. 
The  authors  of  the  movement  have  a  clear  vision  that  peace- 
ful and  harmonious  relations  between  the  nations  depend 
upon  the  increase  of  knowledge,  toleration  and  association. 

A  world's  congress  of  international  associations  was  held 
in  Brussels  in  1910  under  the  auspices  of  the  Union  and  was 

1    Annuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale,  1909-1911,  p.  33. 


98  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 


attended  by  the  directors  of  132  international  groups.  The 
union  publishes  a  periodical,  La  Vie  Internationale,  and  also 
LAnnuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale  which  contains  a  list  of 
all  international  congresses,  associations,  etc.,  together  with 
valuable  data  taken  from  their  official  reports. 

Some  interest  has  been  aroused  in  the  establishment  of  a 
World  Center  by  the  labors  of  an  architect,  Hendrick  Chris- 
tian Andersen.  He  has  prepared  plans  for  a  model  city  to 
cover  an  area  of  ten  square  miles  with  buildings  adapted  "to 
the  unification  of  international  interests."  He  proposes  that 
such  a  city  shall  become  the  headquarters  of  the  various  in- 
ternational unions  and  associations.  Sites  suitable  for  this 
World  City  have  been  suggested  in  the  vicinity  of  Brussels, 
Berne,  Paris,  Constantinople,  Rome,  on  the  Riviera  and  near 
Lakewood,  N.  J.1 

Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  with  the  expansion  of  internation- 
alism there  are  serious  attempts  being  made  to  direct  this 
spontaneous  growth  into  effective  channels,  to  secure  coordi- 
nation and  economy  of  effort  and  to  promote  some  form  of 
world  organization. 


Hendrick  C.  Andersen,  "World  Conscience.' 


CHAPTER  VI. 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  INTERNATIONALISM 

We  have  already  shown  how  the  "free  fairs"  of  Europe 
served  to  establish  here  and  there  international  centers  where 
foreign  merchants  could  traffic  untrammeled  by  many  of  the 
restrictions  which  ordinarily  made  trade  difficult.  What  the 
free  fairs  did  in  the  commercial  world,  the  great  universities, 
which  sprang  up  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  did  in  the  intellectual  world.  Bologna,  Paris,  Sala- 
manca and  Oxford — not  to  mention  many  other  famous  seats 
of  learning — became  gathering  points  for  the  students  from 
all  countries. 

It  was  a  comparatively  easy  matter  for  students  and  pro- 
fessors to  go  from  one  university  to  another  while  Latin  con- 
tinued to  be  the  tongue  of  the  learned.  Many  scholars  of  note 
studied  successively  at  various  universities.  While  there  was 
probably  nothing  which  would  correspond  exactly  to  the  ex- 
change of  professors  such  as  we  know  today,  yet  Renan  says 
that  many  professors  moved  every  year  from  one  university 
to  another  to  increase  their  meagre  salaries.1 

These  early  universities  had  many  points  of  resemblance. 
They  were  all  under  papal  control  and  a  large  part  of  the 
curricula  was  theological  and  ecclesiastical.  The  basis  for 
the  juristic  teaching,  at  least  on  the  continent,  was  the  Roman 
law.  The  bonds  between  them  were  largely  supernational  in 
an  age  when  the  only  unifying  principle  lay  in  the  Catholic 
Church.  Thus  it  came  about  as  Compayre  has  said,  that  "in 
spite  of  incessant  wars,  in  spite  of  invasion,  in  spite  of 
hatreds  between  peoples,  there  was  above  all  frontiers  a 

1    Renan,  "Averroes  et  Averroism"  p.  258. 


100  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

European  alliance  of  all  the  superior  schools,  a  something  like 
the  United  States  of  Universities."1 

With  the  rise  and  growth  of  nationalism  the  universities 
became  more  national  in  character.  The  Latin  tongue  gave 
way  more  and  more  to  national  languages  and,  on  this  account, 
the  interchange  of  students  became  increasingly  difficult. 
The  modern  exchange  of  professors  and  students — a  feature 
of  the  new  internationalism — is  taking  place  under  greatly 
changed  conditions.  There  is  no  longer  a  common  language 
of  learning,  nor  has  any  modern  auxiliary  language  arisen  to 
take  the  place  that  Latin  once  occupied.  Yet  under  these 
changed  conditions  the  universities  are  powerful  factors  in 
the  growth  of  internationalism. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  the  universities  tend  to  foster 
the  spirit  of  internationalism.  Learning  is  less  nationalistic 
than  commerce.  The  exchange,  or  attempted  exchange,  of 
economic  goods  between  nations  has  often  led  to  jealousies 
and  conflicts  which  the  exchange  of  ideas  have  never  created. 
Learning  is  supernational  and  not  until  comparatively  modern 
times  has  commerce  become  to  a  large  degree  international. 
Furthermore  the  universities  are  grounded  upon  the  univer- 
sality of  scientific  truth  and  root  their  philosophical  and  lite- 
rary teaching  in  the  common  soil  of  Greece  and  Rome.  By 
teaching  the  modern  languages  they  are  preparing  the  students 
of  one  nation  to  draw  upon  the  literary  and  scientific  treasures 
of  other  nations  and  to  come  into  sympathetic  cooperation 
the  one  with  the  other. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  exchange  of  students  was  between 
European  countries  employing  the  Latin  tongue  as  the  langu- 
age of  the  schools.  To-day  a  new  element  is  added  to  the 
student  body  in  Europe  and  America  from  an  awakening 
Orient.  As  soon  as  Japan  addressed  herself  to  the  task  of 
"occidenting"  herself  to  modern  learning  she  began  sending 

1    Gabriel  Compayre,  "Abelard  and  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of  Universi- 
ties," p.  69. 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  INTERNATIONALISM  101 

her  young  men  to  schools  and  colleges  in  Europe  and  America. 
These  capable  and  acquisitive  young  men  and  women  very 
soon  introduced  sweeping  changes  into  the  educational,  political 
and  industrial  life  of  the  island  empire  which  have  made  it  the 
wonder  of  modern  times.  The  policy  of  educating  young  men 
and  women  abroad  is  still  continued,  as  is  seen  by  the  large 
number  of  Japanese  students  in  the  schools  and  colleges  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  magnanimous  action  of  the  United  States  in  remitting 
its  share  of  the  indemnity  demanded  of  China  by  the  Powers 
for  losses  incurred  in  the  Boxer  Rebellion  led  the  Dragon  Em- 
pire to  set  aside  that  sum  to  be  used  in  defraying  the  expenses 
of  young  men  and  women  who  should  be  chosen  from  the 
Eighteen  Provinces  to  receive  advanced  education  in  the 
United  States.  It  would  be  impossible  to  prophesy  what  will 
be  the  results  to  China  when  these  capable  young  men  and 
women  enter  into  positions  of  leadership  among  their  own  people. 

The  international  aspect  of  student  life  is  reflected  in  several 
international  congresses  that  have  been  held  and  in  the  many 
clubs  and  associations  that  have  been  formed  to  promote 
fraternal  relations  between  foreign  and  native  students  in 
many  colleges  and  universities. 

An  effort  was  made  at  Paris,  in  1889,  to  form  a  universal 
federation  of  students  and  a  bureau  composed  of  representa- 
tives from  thirty- two  countries  was  elected.  But  the  enter- 
prise was  short-lived. 

Another  international  congress  of  students  was  held  at 
Turin,  in  1898,  at  which  the  Federation  Internationale  des 
Etudiantes  was  formed.  It  is  also  called  Cor  da  Fratres.  The 
aims  of  the  federation  are  to  promote  solidarity  and  fraternity 
between  all  college  students,  whatever  their  politics  or  religion, 
and  to  use  all  means  possible  to  remove  the  prejudices  and 
hatreds  between  classes  and  nations  which  tend  to  provoke 
war.  It  committed  itself  to  the  principle  of  arbitration  for 
the  settlement  of  international  differences. 


102  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  Federation  held  congresses  at  Liege  in  1905,  at  Mar- 
seilles in  1906  and  at  Bordeaux  in  1907.  At  the  Hague,  in 
1909,  an  alliance  was  formed  between  the  Corda  Fratres  and 
the  Association  of  Cosmopolitan  Clubs  of  America.  The  lat- 
ter organization  was  started  in  Madison,  Wisconsin,  in  1907, 
"to  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace,  to  establish  strong  international 
friendships  and  to  carry  out  the  motto  of  the  Association, 
'Above  all  nations  is  Humanity.'  ' 

The  students  of  Latin  America  met  in  Montevideo  in  1908 
and  formed  the  Liga  de  Estudiantes  Americanos,  which  has 
held  several  congresses.  Similarly,  the  students  of  the  Central 
American  republics  held  an  international  congress  in  San 
Salvador  in  1911. 

With  the  idea  of  facilitating  the  travel  of  students  to  other 
countries  there  was  formed  in  London,  in  1912,  the  Associa- 
tion for  the  International  Interchange  of  Students.  The 
organization  hopes  to  enlarge  its  somewhat  restricted  scope 
to  include  the  universities  of  all  countries. 

The  socialist  students  have  held  several  international  con- 
gresses and  the  Catholic  students  from  several  countries  met 
in  Rome  in  1900,  and  in  Amsterdam  in  1911. 

The  awakened  interest  of  college  students  the  world  over 
in  the  claims  of  Christianity  upon  their  lives  was  very  forcibly 
presented  to  the  Student  Volunteer  Convention  in  Kansas 
City,  January  2,  1914,  by  Dr.  John  R.  Mott,  who  had  recently 
returned  from  a  tour  among  the  colleges  of  the  world.  He  said 
to  the  5,000  young  men  and  women  who  were  present  from 
700  colleges  and  professional  schools  where  they  were  in  train- 
ing for  Christian  leadership  abroad,  that  he  was  convinced 
that  the  forces  of  pure  Christianity  were  facing  an  absolutely 
unprecedented  situation  in  the  non-Christian  world.  In  the 
Orient  and  the  Levant  the  attitude  of  thousands  of  students 
is  favorable  to  Christianity.  When  we  consider  that  the  social 
ideals  of  Christianity  are  human  brotherhood,  right-living  and 
world  peace,  the  significance  of  the  present  situation  from  the 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  INTERNATIONALISM  103 

point  of  view  of  internationalism  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. 

The  World's  Christian  Student  Federation,  which  held  its 
first  congress  in  Wadstena,  Sweden,  in  1 895,  seeks  to  establish 
relations  between  the  organizations  of  Christian  students  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  to  publish  information  regarding  religious 
conditions  among  the  students  of  all  countries,  and  to  lead  them 
into  Christian  discipleship  and  service.  In  the  Federation  there 
are  student  organizations  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, Belgium,  Holland,  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  Great 
Britain,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Finland,  China,  Korea, 
Japan,  India,  Burma,  Ceylon  and  South  Africa. 

Besides  the  associations  and  clubs  already  referred  to,  some 
university  centers  make  special  provision  for  foreign  students. 
At  Gb'ttingen  there  is  the  Deutsches  Institut  fur  Ausl'dnder. 
Columbia  University  maintains  a  Deutsches  Haus,  which  is 
the  residence  of  the  German  exchange  professor  and  the  head- 
quarters for  German  students,  and  a  Maison  Frangaise  as  a 
French  headquarters;  the  University  of  California  has  an 
^International  Club;  at  the  University  of  Paris  the  Association 
franco-russe  gives  its  attention  to  Russian  students;  the 
Societe  franco-allemande,  of  Berlin,  arranged  a  vist  of  French 
students  to  that  city  in  1908;  visits  of  German  and  Belgian 
students  to  Paris  have  been  arranged  at  various  times.  All 
these  movements  tend  to  strengthen  the  bonds  of  friendship 
between  the  students  of  various  countries  and  to  promote  a 
spirit  of  internationalism. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  manifestation  of  the  desire  to 
create  and  maintain  relations  of  international  friendship  and 
understanding  in  educational  circles  is  the  exchange  of  pro- 
fessors between  some  of  the  leading  universities  of  Europe  and 
America.  The  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Pro- 
fessorships, endowed  by  a  gift  of  $50,000  to  Columbia 
University,  provide  each  year  for  sending  an  American  profes- 
sor to  lecture  in  the  University  of  Berlin  upon  American 


104  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

institutions  and  history.  The  Prussian  government  has  set 
aside  a  series  of  rooms  in  the  Royal  Library  for  the  Roosevelt 
professor  and  has  equipped  them  with  books  on  American 
history  and  institutions.  Requests  have  been  made  by  the 
Universities  of  Leipzig  and  Munich  for  a  part  of  the  time 
of  the  Roosevelt  professor.  A  German  exchange  professor  is 
nominated  each  year  by  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  Education 
and  invited  to  deliver  a  course  of  lectures  in  Columbia 
University  upon  German  history  and  institutions. 

Similar  arrangements  have  been  made  with  the  Austrian 
government  for  an  exchange  of  professors  and  the  first  visiting 
professor  lectured  at  Columbia  University  in  the  fall  of  1913. 
This  university  was  also  visited  the  same  year  by  a  lecturer 
sent  out  by  the  Queen  Wilhelmina  Lectureship  on  the  Dutch 
Language,  Literature  and  History.  The  object  of  this  lecture- 
ship is  to  develop  an  interest  in  the  history  and  literature  of 
Holland. 

Negotiations  have  been  entered  into  which  will  probably 
result  in  professorial  exchanges  with  Italy,  Latin-America 
and  Japan. 

Columbia  University  has  an  exchange  plan  also  with  the 
University  of  Paris  and  each  year  a  French  professor  is  in- 
vited to  conduct  a  seminar  for  three  months  at  Columbia. 
During  the  year  professors  from  many  other  of  the  leading 
institutions  of  higher  learning  are  present  at  Columbia  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time. 

Harvard  University  also  maintains  an  exchange  of  pro- 
fessors with  Paris  and  Berlin.  The  Universities  of  Bordeaux, 
in  France,  and  Oviedo,  Saragossa  and  Barcelona,  in  Spain, 
have  an  arrangement  for  the  exchange  of  professors. 

Through  the  gifts  of  M.  Albert  Kahn,  of  Paris,  there  have 
been  established  traveling  fellowships  to  enable  scholars  to 
pursue  their  special  researches  in  other  countries.  This  fund 
aims  to  give  to  the  world  the  results  of  special  exploration 
and  investigation  made  possible  through  its  felllowships. 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  INTERNATIONALISM  105 

The  universities  will  thus  be  seen  to  be  promoting  that 
friendship  and  understanding  between  the  nations  which 
means  the  eventual  breaking  down  of  sectionalism,  national 
arrogance,  and  distrust  born  of  ignorance. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
FRIENDSHIP  SOCIETIES 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  the  recognition  there  has  been 
given  in  the  past  few  years  to  the  value  of  some  bond  of  unity 
between  widely  separated  workers  in  similar  fields  of  activity. 
To  put  men  of  different  nationalities  in  touch  with  each  other 
along  the  line  of  their  special  interests,  be  they  intellectual, 
industrial,  commercial,  recreational  or  what  not,  this  is  the 
aim  of  many  correspondence  clubs  which  have  sprung  up  within 
recent  years  in  several  countries.  Privileges  of  personal  cor- 
respondence upon  designated  topics  with  other  members  of  the 
association  are  offered  by  many  of  these  clubs.  The  multi- 
plication of  these  clubs  with  growing  memberships  covering 
the  whole  world  is  ample  evidence  that  life  is  becoming  in- 
creasingly cosmopolitan.  The  fact  that  the  bond  which  is 
established  by  these  means  is  largely  a  personal  one  makes 
internationalism  something  more  than  a  mere  abstraction.  The 
very  names  of  these  societies  are  significant. 

International  Correspondence  Clubs.  The  first  of  these 
societies  seems  to  have  been  formed  in  Paris  in  1895.  It  is 
called  La  Societe  f  Etudes  et  de  Correspondence  Internationale, 
or  International  Concordia.  It  seeks  to  associate  in  its  fra- 
ternity groups  in  all  countries  of  the  world.  Its  aim  is  to  foster 
international,  relations  through  a  study  of  world-wide  intel- 
lectual, moral  and  economic  movements.  It  seeks  to  promote 
solidarity  and  mutual  aid  between  its  members,  through  cor- 
respondence, congresses,  banquets,  translation  bureaus,  inter- 
national circles,  etc.  The  society  publishes  an  annual  giving 
the  names  of  its  members  and  the  subjects  upon  which  they 
agree  to  enter  into  correspondence  with  other  members.  It 
also  includes  in  its  functions  the  placing  of  young  people  in 
families  where  they  can  acquire  a  foreign  language. 


FRIENDSHIP  SOCIETIES  107 

In  England  the  Round  About  Club,  formed  in  1897,  has 
three  departments:  the  English  Speaker's  Link  seeks  to  es- 
tablish correspondence  between  English-speaking  members 
interested  in  international  life;  the  Host  and  Hostess  Depart- 
ment associates  those  who  are  willing  to  exchange  the  courtesies 
of  hospitality  to  others  in  like  social  position;  while  the  Cor- 
respondence Club  affords  opportunities  for  correspondence. 

Germany  has  four  societies.  Die  Briicke,  of  Leipzig,  offers 
a  "bridge"  between  the  scholars  of  different  nations  working 
in  similar  lines  of  investigation.  It  is  committed  to  the  work 
of  promoting  uniformity  in  the  printing  and  binding  of  books. 
Its  publication,  "Biicher  und  Saager,"  is  also  issued  in  Esper- 
anto. Die  Weltwarte,  also  of  Leipzig,  promotes  the  study  of 
foreign  languages  and  the  study  of  Esperanto.  It  publishes 
a  periodical  of  the  same  name.  A  third  society  in  Leipzig  is 
the  Weltvereinigung  Kosmopolit.  In  Munich  is  the  Welt-Verein, 
which  aims  at  the  development  of  commerce,  industry  and  the 
professions.  It  offers  to  authors  a  friendly  criticism  of  their 
works.  The  members  of  the  Association  bear  the  significant 
name  of  the  "world  family"  (die  Weltfamilie). 

In  Holland  the  Kosmos,  domiciled  in  Amsterdam,  offers 
opportunities  of  correspondence  between  its  members  upon 
all  subjects  except  politics  and  religion.  It  publishes  a  peri- 
odical called  "Kosmos." 

Switzerland  has  the  Internacia  Li  go,  at  Zurich,  which  favors 
collectors  of  stamps,  post-cards,  photographs  and  other  ob- 
jects. It  publishes  the  "Welt-Post." 

In  Italy  the  Societa  Internazionale  degl 'Intellettuali,  located 
at  Catania,  Sicily,  seeks  to  form  a  bond  between  savants,  lit- 
terateurs and  artists.  It  is  committed  to  advancing  the  feminist 
movement,  to  reform  in  public  instruction  and  to  the  founding 
of  a  popular  university  with  courses  in  'science  and 
journalism. 

The  Cosmopolitan  Correspondence  Club,  formed  in  Wis- 
consin, in  1 907,  with  offices  in  Milwaukee,  offers  opportunities 


108  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

of  correspondence  between  its  members.    Its  publication  is 
"The  Globe  Trotter." 

Although  not  in  the  nature  of  a  club,  but  upon  a  purely 
commercial  basis,  there  might  be  mentioned  in  this  connec- 
tion the  International  Correspondence  Schools,  with  offices  in 
London,  which  offer  advantages,  by  means  of  correspondence 
to  those  who  desire  to  receive  instruction  while  pursuing  their 
customary  avocations.  Their  success  is  a  testimony  to  the 
value  of  the  correspondence  system  of  education. 

International  Friendship  Societies.  Several  associations  have 
been  formed  in  different  countries  to  promote  feelings  of  cor- 
diality between  the  peoples  of  two  or  more  nations.  These 
are  generally  designed  as  a  bond  between  two  particular  na- 
tions. They  deserve  mention  in  this  connection  as  exerting 
an  influence  towards  bringing  about  that  better  understand- 
ing between  the  citizens  of  different  nations  which  promotes 
the  spirit  of  internationalism. 

The  Pilgrim  Society  was  formed  in  London  in  1902  to  pro- 
mote friendship  and  peace  between  the  two  great  English- 
speaking  nations.  The  following  year  a  similar  and  affiliated 
society  was  formed  in  New  York. 

The  Japan  Society  was  formed  in  New  York,  in  1907,  to 
"promote  friendly  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan  and  to  diffuse  among  the  American  people  a  more  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  the  people  of  Japan,  their  aims,  arts, 
sciences,  industries  and  economic  conditions."  The  society 
arranges  lectures  and  exhibitions  and  annually  sends  an  Ameri- 
can lecturer  to  Japan  to  promote  friendly  relations  with  that 
people. 

The  National  German  American  Alliance  forms  a  bond  be- 
tween the  German-Americans  and  the  Fatherland.  The  Ameri- 
can Scandinavian  Foundation,  with  an  endowment  of  over  a 
half-million  dollars  is  a  powerful  bond  between  America  and 
the  Scandinavian  peoples.  The  Latin-American  Society  seeks 
to  promote  friendly  relations  among  the  peoples  of  the  American 


FRIENDSHIP  SOCIETIES  109 

republics.  The  Mexico  Society  was  formed  with  similar  aims 
for  the  two  North  American  Republics.  To  promote  friendly 
relations  between  France  and  Germany  may  be  mentioned  the 
Franco-German  League,  and  the  Pour  mieux  se  connaitre,  of 
Paris. 

Great  Britain  and  Germany  have  reciprocal  societies:  The 
British  German  Friendship  Society  of  London  and  the  Deutsch 
Englisches  Verstandigung  Komittee  of  Berlin;  The  Associated 
Councils  of  the  Churches  in  the  British  and  German  Empires 
for  the  Fostering  of  Friendly  Relations  between  the  two  Peoples, 
and  the  Kirchliches  Komittee  zur  Pflege  freundschaftlicher  Bezie- 
hungen  zwischen  Grossbritannien  und  Deutschland.  Mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  Latin  Union  and  the  Franco- Italian 
League,  of  Paris. 

In  both  France  and  England  have  parliamentary  groups 
been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the  new  Republic  of 
China  "by  parliamentary  action,  by  influencing  public  opinion 
and  keeping  a  check  upon  mis-statements  as  they  appear  in 
the  press.  Briefly  stated,  the  object  is  to  give  the  new  Chinese 
Republic  the  best  possible  opportunity  of  developing  China 
during  these  critical  years  on  free  and  independent  lines." 
Further,  an  Anglo-Chinese  Friendship  Bureau  has  opened 
offices  in  London  to  promote  friendly  relations  between  Eng- 
land and  China,  particularly  a  cooperation  with  the  many 
Chinese  students  in  England. 

Another  organization  designed  to  produce  a  better  know- 
ledge of  international  matters,  promote  solidarity,  mutual  re- 
spect and  emulation,  is  the  Union  des  Nationality,  of  Paris. 
It  plans  for  scientific  missions,  the  organization  of  congresses 
and  the  friendly  intercourse  in  Paris  between  the  groups  of 
different  nationalities.  It  contemplates  the  erection  in  Paris 
of  an  International  Museum  of  Nationalities.  It  seeks  to 
establish  an  entente  between  nations  on  questions  requiring 
common  action.  Its  aim  is  the  promotion  of  universal  peace 
and  the  organization  of  European  and  world  federation. 


110  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  Carton  Foundation,  of  London,  seeks  to  promote  in- 
ternationalism, particularly  in  the  universities  and  other  edu- 
cational institutions  of  England,  by  means  of  prizes  and  scholar- 
ships. 

The  Conciliation  Internationale,  established  in  1905,  seeks 
to  "develop  national  prosperity  by  means  of  good  international 
relations,  and  to  organize  these  good  relations  on  a  permanent 
and  lasting  basis/*  It  has  a  permanent  office  in  Paris. 

The  "Potentia  Organization,"  of  London,  was  founded  in 
1905  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  honest  journalism  and  to 
correct  false  reports  spread  by  the  press  which  are  likely  to 
injure  the  interests  of  any  foreign  country  and  foster  feelings 
of  distrust  and  enmity. 

International  Foundations  for  the  Encouragement  of  Scientific 
Research.  The  interdependence  of  the  scientific  world  in  all 
lines  of  progress  has  already  been  shown  by  the  large  number 
of  international  associations,  holding  congresses  upon  every 
topic  of  scientific  interest.  We  must  further  note  the  stimulus 
that  is  afforded  to  valuable  research  work  by  individuals  of 
whatever  nationality  by  the  offering  of  cash  prizes,  medals 
and  scholarships.  Every  year  sees  the  multiplication  of  en- 
dowment funds  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  individual  effort. 
Many  of  these  foundations  are  administered  by  the  great  uni- 
versities both  here  and  in  Europe.  Scientific,  medical  and 
industrial  associations  and  individuals  have  made  provisions 
for  the  reward  of  eminent  service  in  the  fields  of  scientific, 
literary  and  social  progress.  InL'InternationalismeScientifique1 
upwards  of  seventy  prizes  and  medals  are  enumerated.  This 
probably  falls  very  much  short  of  those  which  are  open  to 
competition  by  scholars  of  all  nationalities,  and  we  may  ex- 
pect a  very  large  increase  in  the  number  in  the  future.  The 
low  scale  of  remuneration  of  those  engaged  in  scientific  re- 
search, as  compared  with  the  large  financial  returns  which 

1    P.  H.  Eijkman,  "L'Internationalisme  Scientfique" 


FRIENDSHIP  SOCIETIES  111 

often  come  to  those  engaged  in  commerce  and  industry,  makes 
it  highly  desirable  that  substantial  rewards  should  be  offered 
to  those  whose  individual  efforts  redound  to  the  general  wel- 
fare of  mankind.  Some  of  these  foundations  are  established 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  specialists  to  pursue  their  researches 
without  anxiety  about  the  "bread  and  butter  question." 

A  few  of  these  foundations  should  be  noted  in  particular. 
The  Nobel  Foundation  was  established  in  1900,  conformably 
to  the  will  of  Alfred  Bernhard  Nobel  for  the  purpose  of  offering 
prizes  to  those  who  shall  have  contributed  largely  to  the  service 
of  humanity.  The  funds  amount  to  $8,400,000,  making  the 
sum  of  $38,000  available  each  year  for  prizes  which  are  granted 
in  five  departments,  physics,  chemistry,  medicine,  literature 
and  peace.  The  first  four  prizes  are  awarded  by  the  Academy 
of  Sweden  and  [the  peace  prize  by  the  Norwegian 
Storthing. 

Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  has  added  to  his  many  benefactions, 
which  have  not  been  confined  to  the  United  States,  two  founda- 
tions of  international  scope.  In  1902  the  Carnegie  Institution 
of  Washington  was  founded  and  endowed  with  $10,000,000,  to 
encourage  in  the  broadest  manner  investigation,  research  and 
discovery  in  the  fields  of  botany,  economics,  sociology,  history, 
experimental  evolution,  marine  biology,  astronomy,  nutrition, 
solar  research,  terrestrial  magnetism  and  allied  subjects. 

Mr.  Carnegie's  deep  interest  in  the  question  of  world  peace 
led  him,  in  1910,  to  set  aside  a  sum  of  ten  million  dollars,  the 
income  from  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  development  of 
such  agencies  as  give  the  best  promise  of  effectively  advancing 
peaceful  relations  between  the  nations.  The  foundation  is 
known  as  the  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace. 
In  February,  1914,  Mr.  Carnegie  announced  another  founda- 
tion of  $2,000,000,  for  the  promotion  of  world  peace  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  Christian  Church.  An  interchange 
of  eminent  clergymen  between  different  countries  as  advocates 
of  peace  is  contemplated. 


112  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  will  of  Cecil  Rhodes  provided  a  fund  for  the  granting 
of  scholarships  that  would  enable  picked  young  men  of  the 
British  colonies  and  the  United  States  to  pursue  their  educa- 
tion in  Oxford  University.  One  annual  scholarship  each  was 
provided  for  each  province  of  Canada,  each  state  of  Australia, 
to  New  Zealand,  Newfoundland,  Natal,  Jamaica  and  Ber- 
muda. Four  scholarships  were  given  to  Cape  Colony  and  three 
to  Rhodesia.  Each  state  and  territory  of  the  United  States 
was  given  two  scholarships  and  five  were  given  to  Germany. 
Mr.  Rhodes  expressed  in  his  will  his  belief  that  an  understand- 
ing between  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  the  United  States 
would  render  war  impossible  and  that  educational  relations 
make  the  strongest  tie.1 


George  R.  Parkin,  "The  Rhodes'  Scholarships." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
A  WORLD  LANGUAGE 

It  will  have  already  appeared  that  the  intercourse  between 
persons  from  nations  speaking  different  languages,  whether  it 
be  in  travel  or  at  international  congresses  or  in  commercial 
transactions  or  in  whatever  way  their  interests  bring  them 
together,  is  seriously  hampered  by  the  lack  of  a  common  me- 
dium of  communication.  Latin,  which  was  once  the  common 
vehicle  of  communication  between  the  learned,  has  been  elimi- 
nated from  the  problem  as  being  incapable  of  serving  modern 
purposes.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  post-classical  Greek 
would  afford  a  more  flexible  medium,  but  the  possibility  of  the 
resurrection  of  a  dead  language  to  serve  the  new  age  seems 
exceedingly  remote. 

Two  alternatives  seem  to  exhaust  the  possibilities,  as  far 
as  international  agreement  on  the  subject  is  concerned;  (1) 
either  the  adoption  of  a  living  tongue  as  the  universal  lan- 
guage, or  (2)  the  adoption  of  an  artificial,  secondary  language. 
Whatever  may  be  the  result  of  forces  now  at  work  in  the  world 
to  make  any  one  living  language  a  practical  medium  of  com- 
munication between  all  peoples,  the  result  of  any  attempt  to 
reach  international  agreement  on  the  subject  would  seem  to 
promise  to  out-Babel  Babel. 

The  preeminence  of  French  as  the  language  of  diplomacy 
would  seem  to  afford  a  presumption  in  its  favor.  The  Ferfera- 
tion  Internationale  pour  f Extension  et  la  Culture  de  la  Langue 
frangaise,  which  was  formed  at  Liege,  in  1905,  seems  at  one 
time  to  have  entertained  the  hope  that  French  might  become 
the  international  language.  The  Alliance  Fran$aise,  which 
has  branches  in  different  countries,  is  interested  in  the  ex- 
tension of  the  French  language  and  culture. 


114  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

On  the  other  hand  many  have  pointed  to  the  fact  that  the 
English  language  is  making  large  conquests  and  that  between 
three  and  four  million  people  are  by  immigration  brought  every 
year  within  its  realm.  These  facts  have  led  some  to  think 
that  English  is  destined  to  become  the  universal  language. 
But  the  advantages  which  would  accrue  to  the  nation,  or  na- 
tions, whose  language  should  be  adopted  as  universal  would 
be  so  great  that  no  international  agreement  could  ever  hope 
to  be  reached.  The  suggestion  that  the  language  of  some  small 
nation,  like  Norway,  be  adopted  as  a  compromise  gives  no 
better  promise  of  success. 

The  second  alternative  is  the  adoption  of  an  artificial,  auxili- 
ary language  as  the  medium  of  international  communication. 
There  is  no  dearth  of  such  inventions  for  there  are  at  present 
some  twenty  to  twenty-five  such  schemes.  The  moderate 
success  of  several  of  these  attempts  has  been  such  as  to  warrant 
the  belief  that  along  this  line  is  international  agreement  most 
likely  to  be  reached. 

The  first  of  these  linguistic  inventions  to  attain  wide  inter- 
national attention  was  Volapiik,  published  in  1 880  by  Schleyer, 
a  German  priest.  It  had  a  rapid  growth  and  at  its  third  inter- 
national congress  held  in  Paris  in  1889,  there  were  reported 
283  societies  scattered  over  the  world,  with  students  estimated 
at  over  a  million.  The  Akademie  international  de  lingu  univer- 
sal was  formed  to  prosecute  the  work.  Modifications  were  sug- 
gested which  were  not  acceptable  to  the  inventor  and  there  was 
war  in  camp.  The  Akademie  pursued  its  work  of  revision  and 
modification  and  the  result  was  a  new  language  called  "Idiom 
Neutral."  The  vocabulary  of  this  artificial  language  is  based 
upon  the  principle  of  the  maximum  of  international  roots. 
Roots  common  to  the  seven  leading  languages,  English,  French, 
German,  Spanish,  Italian,  Russian  and  Latin  are  chosen  when 
possible.1  It  has  not  been  found  necessary  to  adopt  any  roots 


1    M.  A.  T.  Holmes,  "Dictionary  of  the  Neutral  Languages." 


A  WORLD  LANGUAGE  115 

occurring  in  less  than  four  languages.  The  eminent  English 
philologist,  Henry  Sweet,  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  Idiom 
Neutral  is  the  simplest  language  yet  devised  and  the  one  most 
easily  understood  by  any  educated  European.1 

Seven  years  after  the  appearance  of  Volapiik  a  Russian 
physician,  Zamenhof,  published  a  new  language  and  signed 
himself  "Dr.  Esperanto,"  that  is  "hopeful."  His  hopes  seem 
to  have  been  to  a  large  degree  realized,  for  it  has  enjoyed  a 
large  growth.  Since  1905  annual  international  congresses 
have  been  held  and  groups  of  Esperantists  are  to  be  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  A  permanent  committee  with  head- 
quarters in  Paris,  has  general  oversight  of  the  work  and  pub- 
lishes the  "Oficiala  Gazeto  Esperantista."  In  1907  an  Insti- 
tute for  teaching  the  language  was  established  in  Berne.  Great 
activity  has  been  shown  in  forming  groups  of  Esperantists  with 
varied  interests.  International  Esperantist  leagues  are  to  be 
found  among  theosophists,  Good  Templars,  free  thinkers, 
Catholics,  bankers,  jurists,  government  and  police  employees, 
postal  clerks,  stamp  collectors,  railway  employees,  physicians, 
pharmacists,  stenographers,  printers,  writers,  and  vegetarians. 

At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900  there  was  an  unequalled 
aggregation  of  international  congresses.  The  need  of  an  auxili- 
ary language  was  keenly  felt  and  several  of  the  congresses 
appointed  delegates  to  confer  upon  the  adoption  of  some  suit- 
able medium  of  international  communication.  A  "Delegation 
for  the  Study  of  an  International  Auxiliary  Language"  entered 
into  an  organization  the  following  year.  Numerous  societies 
and  congresses  joined  in  the  project.  Academies  and  univer- 
sities were  corresponded  with  during  the  years  that  followed. 

The  "Delegation"  arrived  at  three  principles  which  it  de- 
clared should  guide  in  the  adoption  of  an  international  auxili- 
ary language:  (1)  it  must  fulfill  the  needs  of  the  ordinary  in- 
tercourse of  social  life,  of  commercial  communications  and  of 


Article  on  Universal  Language  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 


116  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

scientific  and  philosophic  relations;  (2)  it  must  be  easily  ac- 
quired; (3)  it  must  not  be  a  national  language.  Finally,  in 
1907,  310  societies  were  enrolled  in  the  undertaking.  A  com- 
mittee of  twelve  scholars  was  elected  which  met  in  Paris  in 
1907  with  Prof.  W.  Ostwald,  of  Leipzig,  as  chairman.  After 
a  lengthy  consideration  of  the  artificial  languages  already  in 
existence  the  committee  declared  in  favor  of  the  principle  of 
Esperanto.  But  it  desired  certain  changes  and  modifications 
made  in  the  interests  of  simplicity.  Improvements  had  already 
been  proposed  by  an  Esperantist  who  signed  himself  "I do," 
known  to  have  been  the  Marquis  of  Beaufort.  The  proposi- 
tion was  looked  upon  with  disfavor  by  the  Esperantists  with 
the  result  that  a  new  and  reformed  Esperanto  was  fashioned, 
called  "Ido."  Improvements  claimed  for  Ido  are:  (1)  the 
dropping  of  case  endings  for  adjectives,  (2)  the  substitution 
of  Anglo-Saxon  for  Slavic  roots,  and  (3)  the  substitution  of  s 
for  the  plural  ending  in  the  place  of  j.  The  Idists,  as  they  are 
called,  formed,  in  1 909,  the  Unione  por  la  Linguo  Internaciona 
and  now  have  groups  in  various  countries. 

In  1911  there  was  formed  an  association  whose  object  is  to 
secure,  if  possible,  diplomatic  action  looking  to  the  creating  of 
an  international  bureau,  patterned  after  the  Universal  Postal 
Union,  which  shall  take  steps  looking  to  the  adoption  by  the 
nations  of  the  world  of  an  auxiliary,  international  language. 

The  history  of  the  attempts  at  a  universal  language  has 
peculiar  significance  for  internationalism.  It  is  a  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  the  relations  between  nations  have  become  so 
close  that  a  medium  of  communication  is  imperative.  An 
auxiliary  language  that  is  most  international  in  its  roots  is 
most  likely  to  be  adopted.  The  crudity  of  many  attempts  by 
individuals  to  create  an  artificial  language  demonstrates  the 
fact  that  the  work  to  be  of  permanent  value  must  be  done  by 
linguistic  and  philological  experts. 

The  success  of  several  of  the  schemes  shows  that  an  auxili- 
ary language  is  entirely  feasible  and  can  easily  be  learned. 


A  WORLD  LANGUAGE  117 

The  national  languages  will  doubtless  continue  to  be  the  langu- 
ages of  literary  expression,  but  a  workable  and  accurate  second- 
ary language  may  be  put  within  the  reach  of  everyone  of  ordi- 
nary intelligence  and  greatly  facilitate  the  relations  between 
the  different  nations  and  the  advancement  of  all  branches  of 
knowledge.  Such  a  language  would  greatly  advance  world 
federation. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION 

In  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  tried  to  present  the  con- 
crete manifestations  of  internationalism  in  the  cooperation 
that  has  already  been  achieved.  It  remains  for  us  to  consider 
certain  fluctuations  in  the  population  of  the  world  which  are 
having  an  effect  upon  the  growth  of  internationalism. 

The  prophecy  of  the  Hebrew  seer  that  "many  shall  run  to 
and  fro  in  the  earth  and  knowledge  shall  be  increased"  is  find- 
ing a  fulfilment  in  the  twentieth  century  that  never  fails  to 
arouse  wonder.  The  rapid  growth  of  transportation  facilities 
and  the  resulting  comfort  and  cheapness  of  travel  are  pro- 
ducing world- wide  changes.  The  journey  from  Vladivostok 
to  Paris  by  rail  is  already  a  commonplace.  "From  the  Cape  to 
Cairo"  will  soon  be  opened  a  new  and  varied  route  to  the  globe 
trotter.  The  day  would  seem  to  be  not  far  distant  when  one 
will  be  able  to  travel  from  Alaska  to  Argentina.  No  less  mar- 
velous is  the  development  of  ocean  transportation.  Swift  and 
luxurious  steamers  traverse  every  ocean  and  sea. 

If  one  would  stop  to  consider  all  the  human  beings  that  in 
any  moment  are  afloat  upon  the  oceans  and  rivers  and  aboard 
the  swift-moving  railroad  trains  he  would  have  a  picture  of 
the  kaleidoscopic  changes  that  are  hourly  taking  place  all  over 
the  world  in  which  the  racial  colors,  white,  black,  red  and  yel- 
low are  continually  forming  new  combinations  with  ever  shift- 
ing variety  and  interest.  Individuals,  families,  neighborhood 
and  racial  groups  are  continually  entering  into  new  combina- 
tions and  relations  that  are  gradually  changing  the  whole 
texture  of  human  society.  It  will  interest  us  from  the  point 
of  view  of  internationalism  to  look  at  some  of  those  kaleido- 
scopic changes. 


INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION   119 

We  may  for  convenience  divide  this  great  throng  into  three 
classes:  (1)  those  who  are  leaving  their  native  land  to  make 
their  homes  in  another  country;  (2)  those  who  are  returning 
from  a  foreign  sojourn  to  end  their  days  in  the  land  of  their 
birth;  and  (3)  those  who,  in  search  of  employment,  the  trans- 
action of  business,  or  in  quest  of  recreation  and  pleasure,  are 
flitting  hither  and  thither.  This  classification  will  permit  us 
to  consider  the  emigrant  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  country 
which  receives  him,  the  re-migrant — if  such  a  term  be  per- 
missible— from  the  point  of  view  of  his  original  home,  and  the 
flitter  from  both  angles. 

1.  The  Emigrant.  For  the  first  three  and  a  half  centuries 
following  the  discovery  of  the  new  world  the  eccentric  move- 
ments of  national  populations  took  the  form  of  colonization 
in  which  the  state  had  a  directing  hand.  English,  Dutch, 
French,  Spanish  and  Portugese  colonists  retained  their  national 
allegiance.  With  the  independence  of  the  American  colonies, 
and  the  subsequent  growth  of  the  United  States  by  cession 
and  purchase,  all  those  who  forsook  Europe  to  make  their 
homes  within  our  borders  and  to  assume  the  rights  and  duties 
of  citizenship  in  the  land  of  their  adoption  became,  by  their 
individual  choice,  expatriates. 

As  one  by  one  the  Mexican,  Central  and  South  American 
republics  were  formed  the  same  became  true  of  the  immigrants 
to  those  countries.  Only  Canada,  and  a  few  small  colonial 
possessions  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America  now  float 
the  colors  of  European  states.  Emigration,  therefore,  as  far 
as  these  American  republics  are  concerned,  involves  new  politi- 
cal relationships. 

We  are  not  here  concerned  with  the  economic,  social,  politi- 
cal or  religious  factors  which  have  determined  this  migratory 
movement,  nor  with  the  corresponding  changes  which  have 
resulted  in  the  countries  receiving  the  immigration.  Our  in- 
terest is  in  the  commingling  of  races  and  the  effect  it  may  have 
in  promoting  internationalism. 


120  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

A  few  facts  touching  emigration  to  other  parts  of  the  world 
will  make  it  plain  that  the  United  States,  in  a  degree  which  is 
true  of  no  other  nation,  is  the  "melting  pot"  of  the  world. 

The  other  countries  receiving  large  increase  of  population 
by  immigration  are  Canada,  Argentina,  Brazil,  South  Africa, 
Australia  and  Asiatic  Russia. 

Canada  has  encouraged  the  immigration  of  those  desiring 
to  settle  upon  the  land  from  the  states  of  north  and  western 
Europe  from  which  the  old  immigration  of  the  United  States 
was  formerly  drawn.  It  also  receives  a  large  number  of  settlers 
from  the  United  States.  Between  1901  and  1909  it  received 
393,908  immigrants  from  the  United  States,  or  31.6$  of  the 
total  immigration  for  that  period. 

The  Latin  countries  of  Europe  supply  the  large  bulk  of 
the  immigrants  to  Argentina  which,  between  1863  and  1908, 
amounted  to  4,217,963.  Of  this  total,  Italy  furnished  56.3$, 
Spain  25$,  France  6.3$.  Likewise,  Brazil  draws  largely  upon 
southern  Europe.  Of  a  total  of  2,561,482  between  1820  and 
1907,  47.4$  came  from  Italy,  24.8$  from  Portugal,  1 1.3$  from 
Spain,  only  3.6$  from  Germany  and  2.2$  from  Austria. 

The  Australian  immigration  has  been  82.1$  British — France 
and  Germany  furnishing  a  small  quota.  New  Zealand  received 
most  of  its  immigration  from  Australia  and  the  United  King- 
dom and  only  6.6$  from  all  other  countries. 

South  African  immigration  is  largely  British  and  Dutch  and 
that  of  Asiatic  Russia,  amounting  in  the  single  year  of  1908 
to  720,000,  is  wholly  Russian. 

While  it  will  be  seen  that  the  population  of  some  of  the 
various  immigrant-receiving  countries  is  moderately  cosmo- 
politan, that  of  the  United  States  is  recruited  from  every  tongue 
and  people  on  the  earth. 

The  cosmopolitan  composition  of  the  population  of  the 
United  States  is  favorable  for  the  development  of  that  broad 
toleration  for  other  peoples  and  that  sympathetic  interest  in 
conditions  beyond  national  boundaries  which  must  form  the 


INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION   121 

substantial  basis  for  internationalism.  Internationalism  can- 
not rest  upon  national  selfishness  and  any  influences  which 
lead  the  citizens  to  broaden  their  intellectual  horizon  make 
for  the  development  of  what  President  Butler  has  happily 
called  "the  international  mind."1 

Every  adult  immigrant  has  interests  which  bind  him  to 
at  least  two  countries,  the  land  of  his  birth  and  the  land  of 
his  adoption.  It  would  not  be  human  for  him  not  to  feel  a 
strong  and  affectionate  attachment  for  the  land  of  his  fathers. 
Its  history,  traditions  and  customs  continue  to  exert  a  power- 
ful influence  over  him.  The  very  political,  economic  and  social 
advantages  which  he  comes  in  larger  and  fuller  measure  to 
appreciate  in  his  new  home  become  the  criteria  by  which  he 
judges  conditions  he  has  left  and  shape  his  hopes  for  the  future 
of  the  fatherland.  National  and  racial  pride  prompt  him  to  a 
quick  resentment  of  aspersions  cast  upon  his  native  country. 
At  the  same  time  he  finds  himself  associated  daily  in  business 
and  political  relations  with  those  of  a  score  of  other  nationali- 
ties with  equally  keen  national  sensitiveness.  There  is  devel- 
oped a  spirit  of  toleration  for  those  of  different  countries. 

The  leaders  in  the  political  world  appreciate  the  dangers  of 
offending  the  national  pride  or  sensibilities  of  those  upon  whose 
suffrage  they  depend  for  support.  More  than  once  has  a  party 
gone  to  defeat  because  of  the  offensive  remarks  of  some  un- 
wise partizan  campaigner.  The  stage,  also,  has  been  many 
times  rebuked  in  a  very  pointed  and  effective  way  for  carica- 
tures of  national  traits  that  have  aroused  the  ire  of  bodies  of 
citizens  who  retain  very  strong  national  pride.  So  there  is 
developed  in  the  American  population  a  healthy  respect  for 
the  sentiments  and  feelings  of  fellow  citizens  whatever  their 
origin.  This  is  a  true  American  trait  developed  in  the  midst 
of  a  cosmopolitan  population. 

Constant  contact  with  those  of  different  nationality  tends 
to  soften  animosities  and  develop  an  openmindedness  which 

1    Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  "The  International  Mind." 


122  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

is  more  difficult  of  attainment  in  a  country  of  more  homo- 
geneous population  where  the  mores  and  customs  are  more 
rigid. 

America  takes  great  pride  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  asylum 
of  the  oppressed  of  all  lands.  The  presence  of  those  who  have 
suffered  from  economic  and  social  pressure  in  other  lands  leads 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  untoward  conditions  from  which  they 
have  sought  to  escape  by  emigration  to  the  land  of  the  free. 
The  trail  of  the  immigrant  has  been  followed  to  its  source  and 
conditions  have  been  studied  and  spread  before  the  reading 
public  in  the  daily  and  periodical  press.  The  problem  of  im- 
migration, which  is  pressing  more  heavily  than  ever  upon  the 
nation,  demands  the  study  of  conditions  in  every  land  from 
which  the  immigrant  comes.  A  knowledge  of  world-wide  con- 
ditions has  been  thrust  upon  the  American  citizen  by  the  force 
of  circumstances.  The  result  has  been  a  quickened  sympathy 
and  an  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  this  country  has  a  vital 
concern  in  those  conditions  which  turn  the  flow  of  immigra- 
tion towards  our  shores. 

The  American  citizen  should,  of  all  men,  be  the  most  deeply 
interested  in  the  growth  of  internationalism,  as  he  is  the  most 
deeply  concerned.  As  long  as  vast  economic,  social  and  politi- 
cal differences  exist  between  this  and  other  countries  the  tide 
of  immigration  will  continue  to  flow.  Only  one  thing  will 
naturally  restrict  the  volume  of  immigration,  and  this  is  the 
lessening  of  the  difference  between  conditions  in  America  and 
the  countries  that  are  discharging  their  citizens  upon  us.  This 
involves  in  the  United  States  a  leveling-down  process,  economi- 
cally, which  we  cannot  contemplate  without  grave  apprehen- 
sion. But  it  involves,  reciprocally,  a  leveling-up  process  in  the 
other  countries  which  must  result  largely  through  the  growth 
and  development  of  internationalism.  We  may  not  like  to 
face  the  ethical  question  whether  we,  as  a  nation,  are  our 
"brother's  keeper,"  but  enlightened  self-interest  is  forcing  us 
into  the  consideration  of  the  question  whether  the  future 


INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION    123 

well-being  of  our  own  nation  is  not  in  large  measure  dependent 
upon  the  improvement  of  conditions  in  those  nations  that  are 
furnishing  the  aliens  which  enter  so  largely  into  the  economic 
and  moral  problems  of  our  country. 

2.  The  Re-migrant.  If  the  flow  of  population  to  our  shores 
presents  an  international  problem,  so  does  also  the  ebb-tide 
or  more  properly  speaking,  the  return-wave.  Since  1907  the 
Bureau  of  Immigration  has  been  keeping  statistics  on  the  sub- 
ject and  we  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  size  and  significance 
of  this  movement.  Arriving  aliens  are  now  divided  into  two 
classes,  (1)  those  who  express  the  purpose  of  residing  in  the 
United  States  and  (2)  those  who  do  not  intend  to  remain.  The 
departing  aliens  are  similarly  divided  into  (1)  those  who  claim 
a  place  of  residence  in  the  United  States  and  (2)  those  who  do 
not,  and  are  supposedly  here  only  termporarily,  or  are  simply 
passing  through. 

The  following  table  is  taken  from  the  annual  reports  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Immigration. : 

ARRIVING  AND  DEPARTING  ALIENS. 


Immigrant 

Non-Imm. 

Emigrant 

Non-Em. 

Year 

Aliens 

Aliens 

Total 

Aliens 

Aliens 

Total 

1908 

782,870 

141,825 

924,695 

395,073 

319,755 

714,828 

1909 

751,786 

192,449 

944,235 

225,802 

174,590 

400,392 

1910 

1,041,570 

156,467 

1,198,037 

202,436 

177,982 

380,418 

1911 

878,587 

151,713 

1,030,300 

295,666 

222,549 

518,215 

1912 

838,172 

178,983 

1,017,155 

333,262 

282,030 

615,292 

1913 

1,197,892 

229,335 

1,427,227 

308,190 

303,734 

611,924 

1914 

1,218,480 

184,601 

1,403,081 

303,338 

330,467 

633,805 

Many  of  the  departing  emigrants  are  those  who  are  return- 
ing to  their  native  land  to  remain.  Some  of  them  have  saved 
enough  money  to  enable  them  to  pass  their  remaining  days  in 
comfort  where  the  cost  of  living  is  much  less  than  in  America. 
Inquiries  have  been  made  into  the  influences  these  repatriates 
exert  in  their  home  land.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  their 
standard  of  living  is  higher  than  that  of  their  neighbors.  They 
build  better  houses,  wear  better  clothes  and  manifest  a  spirit 
of  enterprise  and  independence  that  is  not  hard  to  connect 


124  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

with  their  American  sojourn.  They  are  not  satisfied  with  things 
as  they  find  them  and  some  of  them  set  about  to  improve  con- 
ditions.1 

The  picture,  however,  is  not  altogether  favorable.  They 
sometimes  prove  that  they  have  been  apt  scholars  in  learn- 
ing many  of  the  vices  which  they  have  seen  in  America.  This 
indictment  is  laid  more  particularly  against  some  of  the  younger, 
unmarried  men  who  have  worked  in  America  and  who  return 
to  spend  their  money  in  idleness,  vicious  indulgence  and  dis- 
play. This  group  belongs  to  the  next  classification. 

Whatever  view  we  may  take  of  the  economic  disadvantages 
to  the  United  States  of  the  money  thus  taken  out  of  the  coun- 
try by  those  returning  to  reside  permanently  in  their  native 
lands,  we  can  hardly  fail  to  see  that  the  tendency  is  to  raise 
the  standard  of  living  in  the  home  community,  to  create  a 
demand  for  better  educational  facilities  and  for  better  econo- 
mic conditions.  In  this  way  a  leaven  of  discontent  with  exist- 
ing conditions  is  introduced  which  is  bound  to  work  until  the 
differences  which  make  emigration  to  America  desirable  are 
lessened.  So  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  future  welfare 
of  the  United  States  through  the  lessening  of  the  tide  of  im- 
migration, the  money  taken  from  the  country  may  prove  to 
be  a  profitable  investment.  The  same  view  may  be  taken  with 
respect  to  the  money  which  the  alien  laborer  in  the  United 
States  sends  back  to  the  old  country.  There  is  abundant  testi- 
mony that  this  American  gold  has  been  almost  the  financial 
salvation  of  some  poor  communities  and  has  resulted  in  raising 
the  general  standard  of  living. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  United  States  is  sending  out 
streams  of  influence  which  retrace  the  trail  of  the  immigrant 
into  every  country  on  the  earth  and  tend  to  alter  local  con- 
ditions in  a  way  that  will  smooth  the  road  to  more  complete 

1    Report  of  Immigration  Commission  on  Emigrant  Conditions  in  Europe. 
"Effect  of  Immigration  on  Italy,"  Charities  and  Commons,  1908. 
"Home  Going  Italians,"  Survey,  Sept,  28,  1912. 


INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION   125 

and  effective  cooperation  between  the  nations  in  matters  per- 
taining to  economic  and  social  welfare. 

3.  The  third  class  is  of  those  who  run  to  and  fro  in  the 
earth  for  various  reasons. 

To  this  class  belong  what  have  come  to  be  called  "birds  of 
passage,"  or  that  mobile  body  of  labor  which  is  not  hampered 
by  home  ties  and  can  come  and  go  according  to  the  varying 
economic  advantage.  This  labor  movement  is  known  in  Europe 
and  is  largely  seasonal.  Laborers  move  from  Italy  up  into 
France,  Switzerland  and  even  Germany  to  work  in  the  fields, 
returning  when  the  demand  for  help  slackens.  There  are 
similar  movements  from  Ireland  into  England,  of  the  Flemish 
into  Holland  and  France  and  of  Poles  into  Germany.1 

A  glance  at  the  foregoing  table  will  show  that  these  "birds 
of  passage"  figure  quite  largely  in  the  industrial  situation  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  largely  unmarried  men  who  can  live 
and  save  money  upon  wages  that  would  not  support  an  Ameri- 
can working  man  with  a  family.  Ocean  transportation  has 
become  so  easy  and  cheap  that  they  can  afford  to  leave  the 
country  when  work  is  slack  and  spend  their  hoarded  earnings 
in  a  country  of  cheap  living.  These  "birds  of  passage"  might 
not  inappropriately  be  called  "birds  of  prey,"  for  "whereso- 
ever the  carcass  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered  together." 
It  is  hard  to  see  how  the  growth  of  internationalism  is  aided 
by  this  class.  But  its  very  existence  is  an  evidence  of  the  ease 
with  which  international  communication  is  carried  on. 

To  this  third  class  belong  also  those  business  and  professional 
men  whose  avocations  lead  them  into  frequent  association  with 
men  of  other  nations,  and  also  the  increasing  number  of  per- 
sons who  seek  recreation  and  knowledge  through  travel.  The 
multiplication  of  railroads  in  every  land  and  the  building  of 
ever  larger  and  more  luxurious  steamships  have  made  travel 
comfortable  and  cheap. 

Some  idea  of  the  annual  movement  of  passengers  over  the 

'Birds  of  Passage,"  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  18:391. 


126  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

railroads  of  the  world  may  be  gained  from  the  statistics  of  our 
own  country.  In  191 1  the  aggregate  mileage  of  the  railroads  of 
the  United  States  was  244,179  miles.  The  number  of  pass- 
engers carried  was  997,409,882,  or  4,085  to  each  mile  of  rail- 
road. The  average  journey  of  each  passenger  was  33.48  miles.1 
The  total  mileage  of  the  railroads  of  the  world  in  1908  was 
595,841  miles.2  If  the  same  number  of  passengers  were  carried 
per  mile  on  all  the  railroads  of  the  world  and  the  average  length 
of  journey  were  the  same,  the  number  of  miles  traveled  by  the 
human  race  in  a  year  would  reach  the  enormous  total  of  81,- 
490,671,037  miles.  If  distributed  per  capita  it  would  give 
every  man,  woman  and  child  on  the  earth  52  miles  of  railway 
journey  in  a  year.  If  travel  from  here  to  the  moon  were  pos- 
sible it  would  provide  1 74,270  persons  with  a  round  trip. 

To  this  enormous  volume  of  travel  must  be  added  that  by 
water  transportation.  According  to  Lloyd's  Register  there 
are  6,694  sailing  vessels  and  23,897  steamers  of  one  hundred 
tons  register  or  over.  The  tendency  is  to  build  ever  larger 
and  swifter  steamers.  There  are  2,865  steamers  whose  speed 
is  from  12  to  25  knots  and  over  per  hour.  Steel  is  rapidly 
replacing  wood  in  the  construction  of  ships.  Of  1,278  new 
vessels  built  in  1912  only  122  were  of  wood. 

The  volume  of  t>cean  travel  may  be  judged  by  the  passenger 
movement  in  and  out  of  the  principal  ports  of  the  United 
States  for  the  last  ten  years,  as  follows: 

DEPARTURES  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  TO  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES3 


Cabin 

Other  than 

Year 

Passengers 

Cabin  Pass. 

Total 

1904 

164,613 

508,204 

692,817 

1905 

201,208 

536,151 

737,359 

1906 

214,669 

496,737 

711,406 

1907 

224,893 

569,882 

794,775 

1908 

236,781 

874,686 

1,111,467 

1909 

244,800 

586,452 

831,252 

1910 

396,040 

326,978 

723,018 

1911 

436,071 

431,616 

867,687 

1912 

463,699 

505,483 

969,182 

1913 

509,278 

450,348 

959,626 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U.  S.,  I9i2,~pp.  304,  312. 
"    '          _  1  Systems  of  the  We 

3    Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U.  S.,  1913,  pp.  100,  101. 


2    Transportation  Routes  and  Systems  of  the  World.  Dep't  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 


INTERNATIONAL  EBB  AND  FLOW  OF  POPULATION    127 

ARRIVALS  OF  PASSENGERS 

U.  S.  Citizens  Non-Imm. 

Year  Returning                  Aliens  Immigrants  Total 

1904  147,974                   47,844  811,870  988,688 

1905  167,227                    40,899  1,026,499  1,234,615 

1906  177,486                    65,618  1,100,735  1,356,273 

1907  191,797  153,120  1,285,349  1,630,266 

1908  200,447  141,825  782,870  1,125,142 

1909  217,173  192,449  751,786  1,161,408 

1910  243,191  156,467  1,041,570  1,441,228 

1911  269,128  I5i,7i3  878,587  1,299,428 

1912  280,801  178,983  838,172  1,297,956 

1913  286,604  229,335  1,197,892  1,713,831 

The  enormous  increase  in  tourist  travel  is  being  felt  by 
every  country  in  the  world  and  every  year  the  number  who 
make  the  world  tour  is  growing.  The  inevitable  effect  of  this 
intermingling  of  peoples  is  a  larger  knowledge  of  world  con- 
ditions, quickened  international  sympathy  and  unification  in 
the  life  of  the  world. 

Vast  as  is  the  throng  that  travels,  it  is  a  vaster  throng  that 
stays  at  home.  And  to  them  the  world  is  being  daily  brought 
in  a  marvelous  way.  The  development  of  photography  and 
its  reproduction  for  the  press  is  affording  a  medium  of  educa- 
tion through  the  eye  which  immensely  supplements  the  in- 
formation of  the  printed  page.  Conditions  of  life  in  every 
part  of  the  globe  are  made  known  through  the  daily  and  peri- 
odical press.  The  happenings  of  yesterday  among  our  anti- 
podes are  current  news  to-day.  The  film  companies  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  interest  in  world  events  to  feature  the  week's 
happenings  in  moving  pictures  in  every  village  and  hamlet 
in  the  country.  In  this  way,  by  dispatches  and  pictures,  the 
life  of  the  world  is  being  practically  isochronized. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  influences  which  are  making  for 
international  knowledge  and  association  in  the  United  States 
may  be  said  with  varying  degrees  of  applicability  of  all  other 
immigrant-receiving  countries. 

It  may  be  questioned  why,  if  conditions  are  so  favorable 
in  the  United  States  for  the  development  of  an  international 
spirit,  our  nation  does  not  rank  higher  among  the  nations  of 


128  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  world  as  a  participant  in  official  international  conferences. 
The  reason  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  comparatively  iso- 
lated geographical  position  of  the  United  States,  while  the 
European  states  by  the  very  fact  of  their  propinquity  to  one 
another  are  favorably  situated  for  international  cooperation. 
/  Another  reason  is  that  according  to  the  Constitution  the  rati- 
fication of  all  treaties  with  foreign  powers  rests  with  the  senate 
and  that  body  has  been  known  to  reject  treaties  and  conven- 
tions that  have  been  approved  by  the  President  and  the  De- 
partment of  State. 

On  the  other  hand  the  United  States  exhibits  to  the  world 
the  practical  federation  of  forty-eight  states  with  different 
racial  admixtures  and  varying  economic  and  industrial  con- 
ditions. Differences  arising  between  the  states  are  peaceably 
settled  by  the  federal  courts.  Coordination  in  both  the  legis- 
lative and  administrative  functions  of  the  various  states  is 
taking  place  without  the  derogation  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
states.  All  this  raises  the  question  whether  with  increased  com- 
munication, understanding  and  association  between  the  sove- 
reign powers  of  the  world  a  practical  federation  will  not  be 
possible  that  will  abolish  war  and  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
whole  human  race. 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM 

It  is  the  tendency  of  every  movement  for  bettering  the  con- 
ditions of  a  particular  group  to  enlarge  in  scope  like  the  widen- 
ing circles  in  a  pool  of  water.  But  there  must  be  contact  be- 
tween the  parts  moved.  The  denser  the  crowd  the  slighter 
need  be  the  motion  at  the  center  to  be  felt  at  the  circumference. 
It  has  been  the  economic  movements  of  modern  times,  com- 
pacting the  world  into  a  sensitive  whole,  that  have  made  in- 
ternationalism a  reasonable  and  necessary  thing.  It  will  be 
helpful  to  an  understanding  of  this  tendency  to  turn  aside  to 
study  a  particular  movement  which  shows  how  a  question 
which  at  first  seems  to  affect  only  one  nation  grows  in  com- 
plexity until  all  the  civilized  nations  are  involved. 

Perhaps  as  good  an  example  as  can  be  found  is  the  opium 
problem.  The  smoking  of  opium  was  once  looked  upon  as  a 
vice  largely  confined  to  the  Chinese.  But  today,  through 
recent  international  effort,  the  municipal  law  of  each  of  the 
principal  powers  of  the  world  has  been  invoked  to  suppress 
the  use  of  opium  and  cocaine  in  all  their  forms,  for  other  than 
medicinal  purposes. 

The  somniferous  poppy  was  cultivated  in  early  times  by 
the  Arabs,  among  whom  the  extraction  and  use  of  opium  seem 
to  have  originated.  By  them  it  was  probably  introduced  into 
China.  A  Chinese  pharmacopoeia,  prepared  by  imperial  order 
about  973  A.  D.,  mentions  the  medicinal  property  of  its  seeds. 
But  it  was  considerably  later  that  the  seed  capsules,  of  which 
opium  is  the  inspissated  juice,  were  used  medicinally.  In  1488 
a  Chinese  author,  Wang  Hsi,  gives  directions  for  the 


V 


130  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

/ 

preparation  (of  [opium.  As  an  article  of  import  it  paid  a  duty 
as  early  as  1589.1 

Until  modern  times  opium  was  principally  used  in  two  ways, 
by  eating  and  smoking.  It  is  the  latter  that  has  been  most 
prevalent  in  China.  About  1620  the  Spaniards  introduced 
tobacco  from  America  into  the  Philippines,  whence  the  smok- 
ing habit  spread  into  China.  At  first  opium  was  mixed  with 
tobacco  and  finally  it  was  smoked  alone.  The  habit  must 
have  taken  a  powerful  hold  upon  the  Chinese  for,  in  1 729,  an 
imperial  edict  was  issued  against  it.  The  sale  of  opium  and 
the  running  of  opium  joints  were  prohibited  and  the  penalties 
prescribed  varied  in  severity  up  to  death  by  strangulation.2 
This  was  the  first  attempt  of  China  to  deal  with  the  traffic  in 
a  drug  whose  damaging  effect  upon  its  people  had  been  ob- 
served for  more  than  a  century.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a 
struggle  carried  on  for  a  hundred  and  eighty  years,  until  the 
interests  of  the  whole  social  order  found  a  voice  that  was  heard 
above  the  cries  of  the  market  place  and  the  disabilities  of  a 
weak  nation  were  removed  through  international  cooperation. 

There  is  a  sense  in  which  the  opium  problem  was  never  a 
purely  domestic  one  with  China.  At  first,  at  least,  opium  was 
a  foreign  product,  an  article  of  external  commerce.  However 
much  China  might  desire  to  live  a  self-contained  and  self- 
directed  life,  here  was  a  commodity  which  forced  its  way  in 
through  the  compelling  power  of  commerce  and  the  demands 
of  a  growing  appetite.  Now  it  is  the  right  of  every  nation  to 
regulate  its  foreign  as  well  as  its  domestic  commerce  and  to 
exclude  entirely  any  commodity  that  it  deems  undesirable.3 
Accordingly,  in  1799,  China  prohibited  the  importation  of 
opium,4  and  from  that  day  to  this  the  imperial  ban  has  never 

1    First  Rept.  Royal  Commission  on  Opium,  p.  148.    British  Parliament  Papers, 

1894,  v°l-  60- 
*    Ibid.,  p.  156. 

«    Vattel,  "The  Law  of  Nations."    (Chitty's  ed.)  p.  38. 
4    Final  Rept.  Royal  Opium  Com.  Vol.  7,  p.  74,  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1895,  Vol.  42. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  131 

been  raised.  The  exclusion  of  opium  became,  therefore,  a 
purely  national  problem,  and  it  was  the  plain  duty  of  the 
government  to  adopt  effective  measures  to  carry  out  the  im- 
perial edict. 

China's  general  policy  of  non-intercourse  with  foreigners 
seemed  to  make  it  probable  that  exclusion  would  be  accom- 
plished. Foreign  commerce  had  been  discouraged  from  the 
time  a  few  adventurous  Portugese  began  trading  with  China, 
soon  after  Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1498.  Trading  with  Portugese,  Dutch  and  English  mer- 
chants, which  at  most  was  carried  on  in  only  a  few  ports,  had, 
about  1757,  been  restricted  by  imperial  decree  to  the  single 
port  of  Canton.1  To  guard  one  port  against  a  contraband 
trade  would  seem  to  offer  no  insurmountable  difficulties  to  a 
fairly  efficient  government.  But  the  very  dislike  and  contempt 
for  foreign  commerce  which  ruled  Chinese  officialdom  resulted 
in  a  scheme  for  its  control  which  doomed  to  failure  the  effort 
to  prevent  a  trade  which  was  becoming  increasingly  lucrative. 
A  merchant  guild,  called  the  "hong,"  was  charged  with  the 
responsibility  of  all  dealings  with  the  "barbarians."  The  im- 
perial decrees  were  transmitted  to  the  foreign  traders  by  the 
hong  merchants  through  whom  alone  they,  in  turn,  might 
communicate  with  the  government.  The  weakness  of  this 
method  of  administration  can  readily  be  seen  inasmuch  as  it 
made  the  regulation  of  a  trade  devolve  very  largely  upon  a 
set  of  men  who  were  financially  interested.  This  was  a  fun- 
damental weakness  in  the  attempt  at  national  control  of  a 
prohibited  trade. 

China  wished  to  have  no  relations  with  outside  nations, 
other  than  those  of  commerce,  and  these  she  proposed  to  main- 
tain below  the  threshold  of  governmental  recognition.  She 
denied  the  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of  nations  which  is  the 
very  foundation  of  international  law.  She  considered  herself 

1    Sir  John  F.  Davis,  "The  Chinese,"  p.  62. 


132  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  suzerain  of  the  world  to  whom  all  other  nations  owed  fealty. 
She  refused  to  treat  with  any  of  them  upon  a  basis  which  im- 
plied equality.  Lord  Macartney's  embassy  to  Peking  in  1 792, l 
and  Lord  Amherst's  in  1816,2  were  as  unproductive  of  results 
as  had  been  those  of  the  Dutch  and  Portugese.  The  "kow- 
tow" was  China's  answer  to  the  claims  of  national  equality. 

While  it  has  been  generally  conceded  that  China  had  the 
right  to  regulate  her  commerce  and  to  exclude  opium  if  she 
so  elected,  it  has  been  found  harder  to  argue  that  she  had  a 
right  to  maintain  a  non-communicative  attitude  towards  all 
other  nations.  Perhaps  the  inevitability  that,  in  the  march 
of  world  events,  she  must  admit  ambassadors  to  the  "Court 
of  Heaven"  at  Peking  influence  us  in  thinking  that  she  had  no 
natural  right  to  hold  herself  aloof  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 
President  Woolsey  says:  "Sovereignty  in  the  strictest  sense 
authorizes  a  nation  to  decide  upon  what  terms  it  will  have 
intercourse  with  foreigners,  and  even  to  shut  out  all  mankind 
from  its  borders.  .  .  And  yet  some  kind  of  intercourse  of 
neighboring  states  is  so  natural,  that  it  must  have  been  coeval 
with  their  foundation,  and  with  the  origin  of  law;  and  it  is  so 
necessary  that  to  decline  it  involves  often  extreme  inhumanity; 
it  is  so  essential  to  the  progress  of  mankind  that  unjust  wars 
have  been  blessings  when  they  opened  nations  to  one  another. 
There  could,  of  course,  be  no  international  law  without  it."8 

It  is  extremely  unfortunate  that  the  establishment  of  free 
intercourse  between  China  and  the  other  nations  was  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  opium  traffic.  Perhaps  President 
Woolsey  had  this  in  mind  when  he  spoke  of  the  "blessings  of 
unjust  wars." 

When  the  military  forces  of  the  British  East  India  Company 
occupied  Bengal  and  Behar,  in  1758,  they  found  a  lucrative 

1    Sir  George  Staunton,  "Account  of  Lord  Macartney's  Embassy." 

8    Final  Rept.  Royal  Opium  Com.  Vol.  7,  pp.  78-84. 

*    T.  D.  Woolsey,  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  International  Law,"  p.  93. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  133 

monopoly  in  the  opium  trade  carried  on  by  natives.  The 
servants  of  the  company  succeeded  to  this  monopoly  which 
was  a  source  of  large  private  gain.  But  when  Warren  Hast- 
ings became  Governor-general,  in  1773,  he  established  the 
state  monopoly  which  has  continued  to  the  present  day.1  A 
further  monopoly  was  enjoyed  by  this  company  until  1834, 
and  that  was  the  trade  with  China.  In  1782  the  Calcutta 
government,  being  in  need  of  funds,  exported  two  shiploads 
of  opium  to  China  on  its  own  account.  The  scheme  was  dis- 
approved by  the  directors  of  the  company  and  thereafter  the 
government's  proprietorship  in  opium  ceased  with  its  public 
auction  at  Calcutta.2 

Even  before  the  prohibitory  edict  of  1 799,  opium  was  looked 
upon  as  contraband  and  the  Company's  supercargoes  in  China 
objected  to  the  trade  as  liable  to  involve  them  in  difficulties 
with  the  authorities.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  the  lucrative 
trade  flourished  and  opium  continued  to  flow  with  increasing 
volume  into  China.  Receiving  ships  were  anchored  in  the 
outer  waters  of  the  Canton  River  to  which  the  ships  from  India 
delivered  their  opium.  Canton  merchants  would  give  orders 
for  opium  on  the  receiving  ships  which  would  be  executed  by 
fast  boats,  called  by  the  Chinese  "fast  crabs,"  or  "scrambling 
dragons,"  which  were  manned  by  desperate  smugglers  whose 
business  it  was  to  evade  the  customs'  authorities  and  deliver 
the  opium  to  purchasers.  This  was  made  possible  by  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  Chinese  preventive  service  and  by  the  con- 
nivance of  corrupt  officials.  The  laxity  in  the  enforcement  of 
the  prohibitory  laws  was  taken  by  those  interested  in  the 
traffic  as  proof  that  China  was  insincere  in  her  attitude  and 
that  she  did  not  really  wish  to  exclude  opium.  It  is  quite  prob- 
able that  those  merchants  and  corrupt  officials  who  were  profit- 
ing largely  from  its  illicit  sale  did  not  care  to  have  the  laws 

1    J.  Spencer  Hill,  "The  Indo-Chinese  Opium  Trade." 
1    Final  Kept.  Royal  Opium  Com.,  Vol.  7,  p.  II. 


134  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

enforced.  But  the  repeated  attempts  of  China  to  free  her  sons 
from  the  opium  curse,  culminating  in  the  heroic  measures  of 
the  past  seven  years,  must  remove  from  her  the  aspersions  of 
insincerity. 

The  national  stage  of  the  problem  may  be  said  to  have  ended 
in  1834,  when  the  monopolization  by  the  East  India  Company 
of  the  Chinese  trade  was  terminated  and  England  sent  out 
Lord  Napier  to  be  the  chief  superintendent  of  British  trade 
with  China.  The  problem  may  now  be  said  to  have  entered 
the  duo-national  or  treaty  stage.  No  treaty  was  as  yet  effected, 
but  the  instructions  of  Lord  Palmerston,  the  British  Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  to  Lord  Napier  were  to  the  effect 
that  he  was  to  communicate  directly  with  the  viceroy  and  not 
through  the  medium  of  the  hong  merchants.  Nor  were  his 
communications  to  be  in  the  form  of  "petitions."  Such  inter- 
course involved  a  national  equality  which  the  Chinese  had 
always  been  careful  to  disallow.  In  his  work  on  China,  pub- 
lished in  1834,  Peter  Auber,  the  secretary  to  the  Court  of 
Directors  of  the  East  India  Company,  writes:  "The  Chinese 
nation  has  ever  been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  decidedly  op- 
posed to  the  formation  of  any  treaty  by  which  a  settled  inter- 
course upon  a  reciprocal  basis  might  be  effected  between  it 
and  other  countries;  China  undeviatingly  and  successfully 
maintaining  her  policy  of  preserving  her  frontiers  from  the 
intrusion  of  strangers."1 

As  long  as  intercourse  was  purely  commercial  and  carried 
on  with  the  supercargoes  of  the  East  India  Company,  to  whose 
interest  it  was  to  be  subservient  to  the  galling  customs  of  the 
Chinese,  the  government  was  willing  that  trade  should  con- 
tinue. Her  policy  was  plainly  stated  by  themselves:  "The 
barbarians  are  like  beasts,  and  not  to  be  ruled  on  the  same 
principles  as  citizens.  Were  anyone  to  attempt  controlling 
them  by  the  great  maxims  of  reason  it  would  tend  to  nothing 

1    Peter  Auber,  "China,"  p.  394. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  135 

but  confusion.  The  ancient  kings  well  understood  this,  and 
accordingly  ruled  the  barbarians  by  misrule.  Therefore  to  rule 
barbarians  by  misrule  is  the  true  and  best  way  of  ruling 
them."2 

Pursuant  to  his  instructions  Lord  Napier  endeavored  to 
communicate  directly  with  the  governor  of  Canton  who  re- 
turned his  letter,  indicating  that  the  customs  of  the  land  must 
be  observed  and  that  the  hong  merchants  were  the  only  medium 
of  intercourse  with  officialdom.  In  his  report  to  the  throne  on 
the  incident  Governor  Loo  reflected  the  Chinese  policy  towards 
the  representatives  of  foreign  powers:  "On  the  face  of  the 
envelope  the  forms  and  style  of  equality  were  used,  and  there 
were  absurdly  written  the  characters  'ta  Ying  kwo',  'great 
English  nation'  (for  Great  Britain)  .  .  .  Whether  the  said 
barbarian  eye  has  or  has  not  official  rank,  there  are  no  means 
of  thoroughly  ascertaining.  But  though  he  be  really  an  officer 
of  the  said  nation,  he  yet  cannot  write  letters  of  equality  with 
the  frontier  officers  of  the  celestial  empire.  As  the  thing  con- 
cerned the  national  dignity,  it  was  inexpedient  in  the  least  to 
allow  a  tendency  to  any  approach  or  advance  by  which  light- 
ness of  esteem  might  be  occasioned.  .  .  .  England  has 
heretofore  had  no  interchange  of  official  communications  with 
the  central,  flowery  land,  and  therefore  what  the  said  barbarian 
says  cannot  be  permitted  to  be  brought  into  operation."2 

The  attitude  of  the  Chinese  officials  may  appear  somewhat 
excusable  inasmuch  as  it  seemed  to  them  that  the  appearance 
of  Lord  Napier  was  in  some  way  connected  with  the  illicit  trade 
in  opium.  He  continues:  "At  present,  the  barbarian  ships 
which  clandestinely  sell  opium  in  the  outer  seas  are  daily  in- 
creasing. Just  when  the  laws  were  being  established  to  bring 
them  to  order  there  came  this  mad,  mistaken  barbarian  eye. 
If  at  this  time  indulgence  be  at  once  shown  to  them  they  will 

1  Sir  John  F.  Davis,  "The  Chinese,"  p.  68. 

2  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  3,  pp.  327-330. 


136  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

then  advance  step  by  step,  begetting  other  foolish  expecta- 
tions/'1 

Lord  Napier's  attempts  to  carry  out  his  instructions  utterly 
failed  and  his  chagrin  doubtless  contributed  to  his  illness  and 
death  the  following  year  at  Macao. 

Another  circumstance  operated  to  increase  the  determina- 
tion of  the  government  to  enforce  the  prohibitory  decrees.  In 
1 836  the  value  of  the  opium  imported  into  China  by  the  British 
merchants  was  computed  to  be  about  eighteen  million  dollars. 
This  was  a  million  dollars  in  excess  of  the  exports.2  The  bal- 
ance of  trade  was  against  China  and  had  to  be  settled  in  Chinese 
sycee  silver,  against  the  exportation  of  which  there  were  strin- 
gent regulations.  The  Chinese  shared  the  opinions  of  the 
Bullionists  that  the  export  of  precious  metal  was  a  national 
loss  not  to  be  countenanced.  Heu  Naetze,  a  member  of  the 
Sacrificial  Board  proposed,  in  a  memorial  to  the  throne,  that 
the  restrictions  against  opium  be  removed,  that  it  be  placed 
upon  the  list  of  dutiable  articles  and  that  it  be  received  only 
in  barter  for  Chinese  goods.3  The  noble  words  of  Choo  Tsun, 
in  a  counter  memorial,  breathe  a  loftier  patriotism:  "The  wide- 
spreading  and  baneful  influence  of  opium,  when  regarded 
simply  as  injurious  to  property  is  of  inferior  importance,  but 
when  regarded  as  hurtful  to  the  people,  it  demands  most 
anxious  consideration,  for  in  the  people  lies  the  very  founda- 
tion of  the  empire.  Property,  it  is  true,  is  that  on  which  the 
subsistence  of  the  people  depends.  Yet  a  deficiency  of  it  may 
be  supplied,  and  an  impoverished  people  improved,  whereas 
it  is  beyond  the  power  of  any  artificial  means  to  save  a  people 
enervated  by  luxury."4 

The  movement  for  a  relaxation  of  the  repressive  measures 
failed  and,  in  1839,  a  proclamation  was  issued  that  an  imperial 


*  Ibid. 

1  Final  Kept.  Royal  Opium  Com.,  Vol.  7,  p.  144. 

1  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  5,  pp.  139-144. 

4  Ibid.,  pp.  390-398. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  137 

commissioner  had  been  appointed  to  put  down  smuggling.  All 
ships  having  opium  aboard  must  be  sent  away  and  smuggling 
stop  or  all  trade  would  cease. 

Commissioner  Lin  took  the  hong  merchants  sharply  to  task 
for  the  failure  of  law  enforcement  and  also  communicated 
directly  with  the  foreign  merchants.  The  pointed  way  he  put 
things  was  rather  embarrassing.  "Why,"  said  Lin,  "do  you 
bring  to  our  land  the  opium  which  in  your  lands  is  not  made 
use  of,  by  it  defrauding  men  of  their  property  and  causing 
injury  to  their  lives?  I  find  that  with  this  thing  you  have 
seduced  and  deluded  the  people  of  China  for  tens  of  years  past; 
and  countless  are  the  unjust  hoards  that  you  have  thus  ac- 
quired. Such  conduct  rouses  indignation  in  every  human 
heart  and  is  utterly  inexcusable  in  the  eye  of  celestial  reason."1 

Lin  demanded  the  surrender  of  all  opium  then  in  the  receiv- 
ing ships  and  bonds  that  no  more  opium  would  be  imported. 
He  detained  the  foreign  residents  in  the  British  factory  at 
Canton  until  his  demands  should  be  complied  with.  Captain 
Elliot,  the  superintendent  of  British  trade,  finding  it  impera- 
tive to  yield  to  the  commissioner,  demanded  the  surrender  to 
him  by  the  British  merchants  of  all  the  opium  in  the  harbor 
"for  the  service  of  her  Majesty's  government."  Accordingly, 
20,283  chests  of  opium  were  turned  over  to  the  commissioner, 
who  caused  them  to  be  destroyed. 

The  high-handed  way  in  which  Lin  executed  his  commission 
led  to  the  Opium  War  between  England  and  China  by  which 
China  was  humbled  and  forced  into  treaty  relations  with  Eng- 
land and  the  other  principal  powers.  In  his  instructions  to 
Sir  H.  Pottinger,  who  was  empowered  to  conclude  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  China,  Lord  Palmers  ton  told  him  that  while  he 
was  not  to  demand  that  the  restrictions  against  the  traffic  be 
removed,  he  was  to  make  as  strong  representations  as  possible 

1    Ibid.,  Vol.  7,  p.  611. 


138  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

to  induce  the  Chinese  government  to  remove  its  ban  from  the 
trade.  He  wrote:  "Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  entirely 
beyond  the  power  of  the  Chinese  Government  to  prevent  the 
introduction  of  opium  into  China;  and  many  reasons  render 
it  impossible  that  the  British  Government  can  give  the  Chinese 
Government  any  effectual  aid  towards  the  accomplishment  of 
that  purpose."1 

That  Sir  H.  Pottinger  was  not  remiss  in  the  duties  laid  upon 
him  may  be  gathered  from  his  own  words:  "I  have  already 
urged  so  strongly  and  undeniably  the  advantages  of  legalizing 
the  trade  in  opium  by  barter,  that  it  is  out  of  my  power  to  add 
an  argument  to  those  I  have  already  adduced."2  The  Chinese 
commissioners  replied  that  the  withdrawal  of  the  prohibition 
against  the  traffic  was  impossible,  but  it  would  not  be  neces- 
sary to  inquire  as  to  whether  the  merchant  vessels  of  various 
countries  brought  opium  or  not.  So,  while  the  Treaty  of  Nan- 
king, in  1842,  did  not  mention  opium,  the  effect  of  the  war 
was  to  paralyze  China  in  her  efforts  to  exclude  the  hated 
stuff. 

By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  full  security  and  protection  of 
the  persons  and  property  of  British  subjects  were  to  be  ac- 
corded and  they  were  to  be  permitted  to  reside  and  trade  in 
the  ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo  and  Shanghai; 
the  island  of  Hong  Kong  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain;  China 
was  to  pay  six  million  dollars  for  the  opium  destroyed,  three 
million  more  for  the  debts  of  insolvent  hong  merchants  and 
twelve  million  dollars  war  indemnity;  the  monopoly  of  the 
hong  was  abolished;  a  fair  and  regular  tariff  was  to  be  es- 
tablished; communication  between  officials  was  to  be  upon 
a  footing  of  equality.3 

1    Papers  relating  to  Opium  Trade  in  China,  1842,  1856,  p.  2,  Brit.  Pad.  Papers, 

1857,  Vol.  43. 
8    Ibid.,  p.  3. 
8    See  Hertslet,  "China  Treaties." 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  139 

The  "blessings"  of  this  most  unjust  war  were  reaped  by 
other  nations  as  well  as  Great  Britain.  The  United  States 
and  France  signed  commercial  treaties  with  China  in 
1844.1 

China  had  been  forced  to  take  the  first  step  towards  inter- 
nationalism by  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  of  nations,  but 
a  generation  was  to  pass  away  before  full  diplomatic  relations 
were  established  and  "five  foreign  ministers  had  their  first 
audience  with  the  Emperor  Tungchi,  June,  1873,  and  stood 
before  his  throne  as  they  presented  their  credentials."2  It 
was  extremely  unfortunate  that  the  circumstances  attending 
the  opening  of  a  great  nation  to  world  intercourse,  without 
which  complete  internationalism  is  impossible,  were  such  as 
to  outrage  her  moral  sense  and  to  give  her  grounds  for  believ- 
ing that  the  interest  of  other  nations  in  her  was  purely  com- 
mercial and  was  inextricably  involved  with  an  illicit  traffic. 
Her  eyes  were  blinded  to  the  inevitableness  of  world-inter- 
course by  which  she  was  to  shake  off  the  lethargy  of  ages  and 
take  her  place  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  E'er  atone- 
ment was  to  be  made  for  this  grievous  wrong  through  the  co- 
operation of  all  the  civilized  powers  there  was  to  be  great 
growth  in  international  morality  in  which  a  large  public  recogni- 
tion of  the  wrongs  she  had  suffered  was  to  play  a  conspicuous 
part.  The  voice  of  humanity  was  to  be  heard  above  the  com- 
mercial clamor  and  England  was  yet  to  acknowledge  that  the 
moral  degradation  of  a  nation  was  not  to  be  weighed  against 
the  gold  of  India. 

The  Treaty  of  Nanking  did  not  alter  the  status  of  the  opium 
traffic  and,  in  1843,  Sir  H.  Pottinger  warned  the  vessel  owners 
against  hoping  to  bring  in  opium  under  the  new  tariff,  saying 
that  the  traffic  still  remained  illegal  and  that  they  must  assume 


Treaties  Between  China  and  Foreign  States,  Vol.  i. 
S.  Wells  Williams,  "A  History  of  China,"  p.  124. 


140  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

all  the  risks  which  attended  smuggling. 1  But  the  effect  of  the 
war  was  to  weaken  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  government  in 
its  efforts  to  suppress  the  traffic.  This  is  borne  out  by  the 
words  of  Sir  John  Davis  who  was  appointed  Governor  of  Hong 
Kong  in  1844.  He  argued  with  the  Chinese  Commissioner, 
Keying,  that  a  legalization  of  the  opium  traffic  "would  re- 
move all  chances  of  unpleasant  occurrences  between  the  two 
governments;  that  it  might  provide  an  ample  revenue  for  the 
emperor,  and  check  to  the  same  extent  the  consumption  of  a 
commodity,  which  was  at  present  absolutely  untaxed.  There 
seemed  the  less  difficulty  in  adopting  this  step,  as,  since  the 
peace,  not  a  single  edict  had  been  issued  against  opium,  which 
was  openly  carried  about  the  streets  in  chests,  and  sold  like 
any  unprohibited  article.  But  the  Chinese  Government  ap- 
peared to  think  that  it  was  less  undignified  to  connive  silently 
at  a  practice,  than  directly  contradict  all  its  former  principles 
by  openly  legalizing  it."2 

This,  then,  was  the  status  of  the  opium  question  at  the  close 
of  the  Opium  War:  the  Chinese  government,  because  of  the 
drastic  measures  it  had  taken  to  prevent  the  importation  of 
opium,  had  been  forced  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with  England 
by  which  the  right  of  communication  between  the  two  nations 
upon  terms  of  equality  was  established,  and  she  was  being 
urged  by  British  officials  to  legalize  the  traffic  which  she  now 
seemed  powerless  to  prevent;  the  United  States  and  France 
had  seized  the  opportunity  to  negotiate  similar  treaties,  the 
violation  of  which  might  become  a  casus  belli.  The  last  two 
powers  were  not  interested  in,  or  favorable  to,  the  legalization 
of  the  opium  traffic,  but  they  were  interested  in  the  main- 
tenance of  legitimate  commerce  and  they  realized  that  this 
could  only  be  accomplished  through  the  establishment  of  dip- 
lomatic relations  with  Peking.  Russia  was  also  interested  in 

1  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  12,  p.  446. 

2  Sir  John  F.  Davis,  "China  During  the  War  and  Since  the  Peace,"  Vol.  2,  p.  44. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  141 

the  project  for  she  had  missionaries  in  the  Chinese 
Capital. l 

The  treaties  were  soon  a  dead  letter  in  China  and  so  lightly 
did  that  haughty  nation  value  them  that  they  were  not  for- 
warded to  Peking,  but  were  found  among  the  effects  of  the 
viceroy  when  Canton  was  taken  by  the  Allies  in  1857.  Lord 
Elgin  wrote  that  year:  "It  is  notorious  that  every  (Chinese) 
statesman  who  has  shown  a  disposition,  since  the  Treaty  of 
1842  was  concluded,  to  carry  out  its  provisions  faithfully  in 
this  quarter,  has  been  disgraced,  and  that  rewards  and  honors 
have  been  showered  by  the  emperor  on  all  who  have  pursued 
an  opposite  policy."2 

The  immediate  occasion  for  the  second  war  between  Eng- 
land and  China  was  the  seizure  by  the  latter  government  of 
a  smuggling  lorcha,  the  "Arrow,"  which,  while  owned  by 
Chinese,  had  obtained  a  British  register  at  Hong  Kong  and 
when  seized  was  flying  the  British  flag.  Canton  was  bom- 
barded and  captured  by  the  combined  British  and  French 
forces. 

The  United  States  had  already  been  invited  to  cooperate 
with  France  and  England  in  bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon 
China  to  grant  rights  of  embassy  at  Peking,  the  opening  of 
new  treaty  ports,  a  reduction  in  the  tariff,  religious  toleration, 
cooperation  in  the  suppression  of  piracy  and  the  extension 
of  the  proposed  treaty  to  all  other  civilized  powers.3  Inasmuch 
as  these  measures  may  fairly  be  said  to  contribute  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  whole  social  order  they  offered  a  legitimate  field 

1  Prior  to  this  time  four  treaties  had  been  concluded  between  Russia  and  China: 

(i)  The  Treaty  of  Nerchinsk,  Aug.  27,  1689,  fixing  the  boundary^  line,  pro- 
viding for  passports  and  recognizing  the  principles  of  exterritoriality;  (2) 
The  Treaty  of  Kiakhta,  Oct.  24,  1727,  refixing  the  boundary,  providing  for 
trading  expeditions  to  Peking  once  every  three  years,  the  establishment  in 
Peking  of  a  Russian  ecclesiastical  mission,  the  method  of  diplomatic  cor- 
respondence and  the  treatment  of  fugitives;  (3)  a  revision  of  the  Treaty 
of  Kiakhta  in  1858;  (4)  the  Treaty  of  Kuldja,  July  25,  1851. 

2  Corres.  Earl  of  Elgin's  Special  Missions  to  China   and  Japan,  p.   21.  British 

Parl.  Papers,  1859,  sess.  2,  Vol.  33. 
8    36th  Cong,  ist  Sess.  Sen.  ex.  doc.  30,  p.  7. 


142  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

for  international  cooperation.  The  invitation  of  Great  Britain 
plainly  involved  the  use  of  military  force  and  this  the  United 
States  was  unwilling  to  sanction.  Secretary  of  State  Cass,  in 
his  instructions  to  William  B.  Reed,  who  was  appointed  en- 
voy to  China  in  1857,  said  that  he  was  to  aid  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  aims  of  the  Allies  by  peaceful  cooperation. 
Regarding  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  to  the  opium 
question  he  wrote:  'The  effort  of  the  Chinese  Government 
to  prevent  the  importation  and  consumption  of  opium  was  a 
praiseworthy  measure,  rendered  necessary  by  the  prevalent 
use  and  terrible  effects  of  that  deleterious  drug.  .  .  .  Upon 
proper  occasions,  you  will  make  known  to  the  Chinese  officers 
with  whom  you  may  have  communication  that  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  does  not  seek  for  their  citizens  the 
legal  establishment  of  the  opium  trade,  nor  will  it  uphold  them 
in  any  attempt  to  violate  the  laws  of  China  by  the  introduction 
of  that  article  into  the  country/'1 

Upon  Mr.  Reed's  arrival  in  China  the  envoys  of  the  four 
powers,  England,  France,  Russia  and  the  United  States,  fired 
a  documentary  broadside  at  the  dragon  throne,  demanding 
compensations  for  losses,  the  righting  of  grievances  and  diplo- 
matic representation  at  the  Chinese  capital.2  They  stipu- 
lated that  they  should  be  met  at  Shanghai  before  the  end  of 
the  succeeding  month  by  envoys  empowered  to  negotiate  new 
treaties  or  they  would  approach  nearer  the  capital.  The  answer 
was  a  refusal  of  the  right  to  communicate  with  Peking.  From 
Shanghai  the  four  envoys,  with  men-of-war,  proceeded  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Peiho  river  where  the  demands  were  reiterated, 
only  to  meet  with  refusal.  England  and  France  determined 
to  capture  the  Taku  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  en- 
force their  demands  at  Tientsin.  The  United  States  and 
Russia  did  not  participate  in  the  hostilities,  but  their 


1    Ibid.,  p.  7. 
8    Ibid.,  p.  122  ff. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  143 

plenipotentiaries  accompained  the  others  to  Tientsin.  Here, 
at  last,  envoys  were  found  whose  powers  were  full  enough  to 
enable  them  to  negotiate  treaties. 

The  first  treaty  to  be  signed  was  that  with  the  United  States 
which  established  the  right  of  our  highest  diplomatic  repre- 
sentative to  correspond  on  terms  of  perfect  equality  and  con- 
fidence with  the  officers  of  the  Privy  Council  at  the  capital, 
and  to  visit  and  sojourn  at  Peking  when  occasion  demanded, 
not  oftener  than  once  a  year.  The  next  article  stipulated  that 
more  favorable  terms  touching  residence  of  the  embassy  at 
Peking  secured  by  any  other  power  should  at  once  accrue  to 
the  United  States.  England  secured  the  right  to  maintain  a 
permanent  embassy  at  the  capital  and  to  acquire  the  neces- 
sary property. 

No  mention  was  made  in  the  American  treaty  of  opium, 
although  Article  33  of  the  former  treaty  expressly  prohibited 
any  American  from  engaging  in  the  trade.  The  reason  for  the 
omission  is  given  by  Ambassador  Reed:  "In  one  of  the  few 
interviews  I  have  had  with  Lord  Elgin  he  expresses  the  strong 
wish  that  the  word  'opium'  should  be  omitted  in  the  American 
and  Russian  treaties.  He  seemed  to  think,  and  I  thought 
with  some  reason,  that  it  was  a  reflection  on  England,  who 
derived  a  large  revenue  from  the  trade,  and  he  assured  me  that 
if  I  would  accede  to  this  he  would  not  attempt  to  legalize  the 
trade  by  treaty,  as  he  was  instructed  to  do."1  To  be  sure  the 
English  treaty  did  not  mention  opium,  but  according  to  Article 
26,  a  revision  of  the  tariff  was  to  be  agreed  upon  later  and  to 
be  made  a  part  of  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin.  Such  a  revision  was 
made  about  three  months  later  at  Shanghai.  By  that  agree- 
ment opium  was  removed  from  the  list  of  contraband  and 
freely  admitted  upon  the  payment  of  a  prescribed  duty.  S. 
Wells  Williams,  who  was  secretary  to  Ambassador  Reed,  says: 
"In  this  part  of  the  negotiations  the  controlling  power  was 

1    Ibid.,  p.  357. 


144  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

properly  left  in  the  hands  of  the  British,  for  their  trade  was 
worth  more  than  all  others  combined.  They  used  this  power 
most  selfishly,  and  fastened  on  the  weak  and  distracted  Empire 
a  veritable  remora,  which  has  gone  on  sucking  its  resources 
without  compunction  or  cessation."1 

This  action  of  Ambassador  Reed  in  agreeing  to  the  tariff 
which  legalized  the  opium  traffic  was  not  in  conformity  with 
his  instructions,  nor  consistent  with  his  own  estimate  of  the 
situation:  "The  two  wars  with  which  China  has  been  afflicted, 
in  1 839  and  1 856,  have  been  confessedly  wars  of  injustice  and 
wrong;  or,  in  other  words,  they  were  instances  of  the  un- 
scrupulous application  of  power  under  the  influence  of  a  sor- 
did or  sudden  impulse,  and  one  effect  has  been  to  impress 
deeply  upon  these  helpless  heathens  the  idea  that  the  power 
of  western  nations  is  at  hand,  not  for  purposes  of  real  justice, 
but  as  a  sort  of  permanent  threat  that,  if  any  natural  interest 
be  interfered  with  however  illegitimate,  this  power  will  be 
ruthlessly  used  to  their  destruction."2 

After  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin,  China  was  in  the  anomalous 
position  of  legalizing  the  importation  of  a  drug  which  it  was 
not  legal  for  its  people  to  use  or  handle.  The  imperial  pro- 
hibition was  never  abrogated  and  was  to  be  renewed  nearly 
fifty  years  later  under  more  favorable  international  circum- 
stances. Four  great  nations  of  Christendom  had  been  allied 
in  bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon  her  to  join  the  glorious  com- 
pany of  treaty  powers  and  they  had  taken  advantage  of  the 
situation  to  negotiate  a  treaty  which  legalized  a  traffic  which 
outraged  her  moral  sense,  and  all  this  because  the  British 
government  had  a  monopoly  of  Indian  opium  and  wanted  a 
profitable  market  for  her  wares. 

The  United  States  extricated  herself  from  complicity  in  the 
traffic  when,  in  1880,  she  signed  the  Supplemental  Treaty  of 

1     S.|Wells  Williams,  "The  Middle  Kingdom,"  p.  657. 
8     36th  Cong,  ist  sess.,  Sen.  ex.  doc.  30,  p.  434. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  145 

Peking,  which  prohibited  her  citizens  from  trading  in  opium 
in  China,  expressly  waiving  the  most  favored  nation  clause  in 
this  particular.  Later,  in  1887,  this  prohibition  was  made  a 
part  of  the  .municipal  law  of  the  land  by  an  Act  of 
Congress. 

It  is  not  for  a  moment  to  be  supposed  that  the  moral  senti- 
ment of  England  suffered  the  governmental  policy,  touching 
the  production  and  marketing  of  opium  among  an  unwilling 
people,  to  continue  unchallenged  or  unrebuked.  Troublesome 
benevolent  and  missionary  societies  did  not  allow  the  vested 
interests  to  indulge  any  delusion  that  they  were  engaged  in  a 
philanthropic  work.  The  revenue  of  India  did  not  look  well 
when  placed  in  the  balances  of  Christian  opinion  against  the 
moral  and  physical  degradation  of  a  helpless  nation.  In  1874, 
the  Society  for  the  Suppression  of  the  Opium  Trade  was  or- 
ganized with  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  as  its  first  president. 
Agitaton  against  the  traffic  was  kept  up  until,  in  1891,  3,352 
petitions  for  the  suppression  of  the  opium  trade,  containing 
192,106  signatures,  were  presented  to  Parliament  and  the 
House  of  Commons  passed  a  resolution  that  the  system  by 
which  Indian  opium  was  raised  was  "morally  indefensible.5'1 
In  1893,  the  Queen  appointed  a  Royal  Opium  Commission 
which  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  subject,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  India.  Its  report,  in  1895,  was  very  disappointing 
to  the  reformers  and  has  the  aspect  of  a  defense  of  vested  in- 
terests. It  held  that  "the  use  of  opium  in  India  should  be 
viewed  in  the  same  light  as  the  use  of  alcohol  in  England.  It 
may  be  harmful,  harmless  or  beneficial  according  to  the  measure 
and  discretion  with  which  it  is  used."  The  almost  unanimous 
testimony  of  missionaries  to  the  evils  of  opium  was  discounted 
on  the  ground  that,  as  total  abstainers,  they  were  not  qualified 
to  testify  as  to  its  deleterious  effects.2 


1  Hansard,  352,  p.  285. 

2  Final  Kept.  Royal  Opium  Com.,  Vol.  6,  p.  93. 


146  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

Fate  decreed  that  in  1 898,  the  United  States  was  to  become 
a  near  neighbor  of  China  and  to  assume,  as  a  part  of  its  re- 
sponsibility in  administering  the  affairs  of  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands, the  burden  of  dealing  with  the  opium  problem.  Under 
the  Spanish  regime  it  was  unlawful  for  the  Filipinos  to  use 
opium,  but  resorts  were  licensed  for  Chinese  patrons  only. 
The  passing  away  of  Spanish  law  resulted  in  a  large  increase 
in  the  use  of  opium,  not  only  by  the  Chinese  but  by  the  natives, 
and  some  effective  mdans  were  sought  to  suppress  the  traffic. 
The  proposition  that  the  Philippine  Commission  farm  out  the 
monopoly  was  strongly  opposed  and  a  committee  of  three  was 
appointed  to  visit  Japan,  Formosa,  Upper  Burma  and  Java, 
to  make  investigations  and  to  report  their  conclusions  and 
recommendations.  The  report,  made  June  15,  1904,  recom- 
mended a  government  monopoly  until  its  total  prohibition, 
except  for  medicinal  purposes,  on  March  1 ,  1 908. *  In  accord- 
ance with  these  recommendations  Congress,  in  fixing  the 
tariff  of  the  Philippines,  provided  that  after  March  1,  1908, 
the  importation  of  opium  into  the  Islands,  except  for  medicinal 
purposes,  should  be  absolutely  prohibited. 

The  report  of  the  Philippine  Opium  Commission  was  largely 
circulated  in  China  and  revived  the  hopes  of  that  people  that 
now,  at  length,  with  the  help  of  England  and  other  powers 
she  might  concert  measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  opium 
traffic.  This  hope  was  strengthened  by  evidence  that  an  aroused 
public  opinion  in  England  was  creating  an  atmosphere  that 
was  becoming  oppressive  in  the  halls  of  Westminster.  A  great 
falling  off  in  the  revenues  from  opium  exported  to  China  also 
had  its  effect  upon  a  certain  type  of  mind. 

Nor  was  China  ignorant  that  the  injustice  of  the  situation 
forced  upon  her  was  causing  vigorous  agitation  in  the  United 
States  which  was  seeking  an  opportunity  for  mediation  with 
England.  Such  opportunity  was  thought  to  present  itself  at 

1     59th  Cong.,  ist  Sess.,  Sen.  ex.  doc.  265. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  147 

the  close  of  the  Boxer  uprising  when  international  interven- 
tion was  necessary  to  rescue  the  imperilled  legations  at  Peking. 
A  petition,  signed  by  the  representatives  of  thirty-three  mis- 
sionary organizations  at  work  in  China,  by  college  presidents 
and  commercial  organizations,  was  presented  to  Congress,  in 
1 900,  asking  that  in  the  revision  of  treaties  which  would  likely 
ensue  the  United  States  Government  use  its  influence  to  secure 
for  China  the  right  to  exercise  its  police  powers  for  the  ex- 
clusion of  foreign  opium.  The  measures  were  ineffective  be- 
cause the  Boer  War  made  it  an  inopportune  time  to  press  the 
matter  upon  the  attention  of  the  British  Government. 

Another  opportunity  seemed  to  present  itself  when  the  fall 
of  Port  Arthur  was  imminent  in  1904.  At  that  time  the  In- 
ternational Reform  Bureau  revived  the  former  petition  and 
secured  a  hearing  before  the  State  Department  on  November 
10,  at  which  various  missionary,  philanthropic  and  commercial 
organizations  advocated  the  leadership  of  the  United  States 
in  the  promotion  of  international  morality.  That  leadership 
was  to  find  expression  two  years  later  in  the  proposal  for  an 
International  Opium  Commission. 

It  was  under  these  favorable  conditions  that  the  famous 
Chinese  imperial  rescript  of  September  20,  1906,  was  issued: 
"Since  the  restrictions  against  the  use  of  opium  were  removed, 
the  poison  of  this  drug  has  practically  permeated  the  whole  of 
China.  The  opium  smoker  wastes  time  and  neglects  work, 
ruins  his  health  and  impoverishes  his  family,  and  the  poverty 
and  weakness  which  for  the  past  few  decades  have  been  daily 
increasing  amongst  us  are  undoubtedly  attributed  to  this  cause. 
To  speak  of  this  arouses  our  indignation,  and,  at  a  moment 
when  we  are  striving  to  strengthen  the  Empire,  it  behooves  us 
to  admonish  the  people,  that  all  may  realize  the  necessity  of 
freeing  themselves  from  these  coils,  and  thus  pass  from  sick- 
ness unto  health.  It  is  hereby  commanded  that  within  a  period 
of  ten  years  the  evils  arising  from  foreign  and  native  opium  be 


148  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

equally  and  completely  eradicated.  Let  the  Government 
Council  frame  such  measures  as  may  be  suitable  and  necessary 
for  strictly  forbidding  the  consumption  of  the  drug  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  poppy,  and  let  them  submit  their  proposals 
for  our  approval/*1 

Two  months  before  the  promulgation  of  this  edict,  Bishop 
Brent,  of  the  Philippines,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  Philip- 
pine Opium  Committee,  wrote  to  President  Roosevelt  sug- 
gesting some  concerted  action  by  the  representatives  of  the 
nations  interested  in  the  opium  problem.2  The  letter  received 
the  endorsement  of  Secretary  of  War  Taft,  who  had  trans- 
mitted the  report  of  the  Philippine  Opium  Committee  to  the 
President,  and  Secretary  of  State  Root  entered  into  corres- 
pondence on  the  subject  with  China,  France,  Germany,  Great 
Britain,  Japan,  the  Netherlands  and  Portugal.3 

The  problem  now  entered  upon  its  truly  international  stage. 
There  had  been  an  international  question  to  be  resolved  when, 
in  1858,  the  Allies  determined  to  force  China  to  accord  to  all 
nations  the  right  of  embassy  and  unfortunately,  as  we  have 
seen,  with  their  success  the  legalized  traffic  in  opium  rode  in 
on  the  crupper.  But  the  opium  trade  itself  was  not  then,  as 
it  now  became,  a  truly  international  question.  It  was  a  treaty 
matter  in  which  the  paramount  interests  of  England  dominated 
the  situation.  It  will  appear  more  plainly,  as  we  proceed,  that 
the  interests  of  humanity  as  a  whole  were  served  by  the  co- 
ordinated efforts,  first  of  a  few  and  then  of  all  the  civilized 
nations. 

Favorable  replies  were  received  from  all  the  powers  address- 
ed. Sir  Edward  Grey,  for  Great  Britain,  made  two  valuable 
suggestions.  The  first  was,  that  instead  of  an  international 
conference,  as  proposed  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  an  inter- 
national commission  should  be  held  and,  second,  that  prior 

1    Peking  Gazette,  Sept.  20,  1906. 

1    6ist  Cong.,  2d.  Sess.  Sen.  doc.  377,  p.  64. 

8    6oth  Cong.,  ist  Sess.  H.  doc.  926. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  149 

to  the  assembling  of  the  commission  each  delegation  should 
make  a  thorough  study  of  the  subject  of  opium  and  other  habit- 
producing  drugs  within  its  own  national  domain.  The  dif- 
ference between  a  conference  and  a  commission  lay  in  their 
powers.  In  the  former  the  plenipotentiaries  would  have  the 
power  to  commit  their  governments  to  the  convention,  or 
resolutions  adopted,  subject  to  ratification,  while  in  the  latter 
the  conclusions  would  be  suggestive  only  and  without  binding 
effect.  England  was  naturally  sensitive  upon  the  subject  and 
was  unwilling  to  have  her  treaties  with  China  come  within  the 
purview  of  the  delegates.  Earl  Grey  said  that  England  was 
willing  to  consider  means  for  diminishing  the  opium  habit  if 
the  Chinese  Government  intended  to  restrict  the  output  of 
the  native  product,  otherwise  it  would  be  useless  for  England 
to  sacrifice  her  Indian  revenues  only  to  increase  the  profits  of 
Chinese  poppy-growers.1  The  International  Opium  Com- 
mission was  accordingly  called  to  meet  at  Shanghai,  February, 
1909. 

In  accordance  with  the  Chinese  prohibitory  edict  of  1906, 
a  series  of  regulations  was  promulgated  and  designed  to  ex- 
tinguish the  opium  traffic  in  ten  years.  These  regulations 
provided  for  a  survey  of  the  poppy  fields  under  cultivation 
with  the  intent  to  reduce  the  acreage  by  one-ninth  each  year 
for  nine  years.  Permits  were  to  be  issued  to  habitual  users 
(estimated  to  number  about  a  hundred  million)  which  would 
enable  them  to  buy  opium  in  decreasing  quantities  until  a 
prescribed  time  limit  for  giving  up  the  drug  entirely  was  reach- 
ed by  each.  Officials  and  literati  were  to  be  dealt  with  severely 
on  account  of  their  example  and  if  they  persisted  in  the  use  of 
the  drug  were  to  lose  their  positions  and  diplomas.  All  opium 
dens  were  to  be  closed  in  six  months  and  opium  to  be  purchas- 
able only  at  licensed  shops  which  were  to  make  annual  reports. 
Opium  remedies  were  to  be  sold  at  a  low,  fixed  price  or  given 

1    China  Papers,  No.  I,  Brit.  Parl.  Papers,  1908,  Vol.  125. 


150  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

away.  The  formation  of  anti-opium  societies  was  to  be  en- 
couraged and  a  campaign  of  education  conducted.  Negotia- 
tions were  to  be  entered  into  with  the  opium-producing  coun- 
tries looking  to  the  reduction  of  the  exportation  of  opium  into 
China  pari  passu  with  her  reduction  of  the  cultivation  of  the 
poppy.1 

In  conformity  with  this  latter  regulation  the  Chinese  Minister 
transmitted,  January  25,  1907,  to  Sir  Edward  Grey,  from  the 
Wai-wu  Pu,  or  Chinese  Foreign  Office,  a  proposal  that  each 
year  the  export  of  opium  from  India  be  reduced  one-tenth, 
looking  to  its  complete  cessation  in  ten  years,  that  a  Chinese 
official  be  stationed  at  Calcutta  to  watch  the  exports  of  opium 
and  that  the  duty  on  Indian  opium  be  doubled.  Inasmuch  as 
the  claim  had  often  been  made  by  the  apologists  for  the  Indian 
policy  that  China  was  not  sincere  in  her  efforts  to  stop  the  im- 
portation of  opium,  it  was  quite  natural  that  England  should 
wish  to  satisfy  herself  of  China's  sincerity.  The  agreement 
was  entered  into  in  1907,  for  three  years  with  the  understand- 
ing that  if  China  made  suitable  progress  in  reducing  the  area 
of  poppy  cultivation  the  agreement  would  be  extended  to  the 
remaining  seven  years.2 

Reports  from  British  officials  in  China  charged  to  investi- 
gate the  success  of  China's  campaign  left  no  doubt  in  the  minds 
of  the  British  Foreign  Office  that  she  was  deadly  in  earnest.3 
Succeeding  edicts  strengthened  the  first  one  and,  in  1908,  an 
imperial  commission  was  appointed  to  take  effective  measures 
to  enforce  the  prohibition  against  opium  smoking  among  of- 
ficials and  as  a  result  many  mandarins  lost  their  buttons.  So 
in  191 1,  England  agreed  to  progressively  reduce  the  export  of 
opium  until  it  should  be  extinguished  in  1917.  It  further 
agreed  that  Indian  opium  should  not  be  conveyed  to  any  prov- 
ince of  China,  that,  prior  to  that  time,  shall  have  effectively 

1  Brit.  For.  Office,  China  Papers,  No.  I,  1908. 

2  Ibid. 

3  British  For.  Office,  China  Papers,  No.  I,  1909. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  151 

suppressed  the  cultivation  and  importation  of  native  opium.1 
Of  this  agreement  Hamilton  Wright  says  in  his  report  of  the 
International  Opium  Commission:  "The  agreement  of  1907, 
between  Great  Britain  and  China,  and  the  modification  of  that 
agreement  of  May  8,  191 1 ,  is  perhaps  the  finest  example  of  the 
comity  of  nations  recorded  in  modern  times.  After  a  contro- 
versy sustained  for  over  100  years  both  parties  to  the  Indo- 
Chinese  opium  trade  have  determined  upon  the  gradual  and 
effectual  suppression  of  that  trade,  and  one  of  them — China — 
has  agreed,  and  has  so  far  most  effectively  carried  out  its  agree- 
ment, to  suppress  an  internal  production  of  opium  six  times 
greater  than  the  foreign  traffic  in  the  drug."2 

The  International  Opium  Commission3  convened  in  Shang- 
hai, February  1 , 1 909.  There  were  representatives  from  Austria- 
Hungary,  China,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Japan,  Netherlands,  Persia,  Portugal,  Russia,  Siam  and  the 
United  States.  These  powers  were  felt  to  have  peculiar  in- 
terests in  the  problem  because  of  relations  with  the  Far  East. 
But  later,  when  an  international  conference  was  held  which 
proposed  conventions  which  should  have  the  force  of  inter- 
national law,  it  became  apparent  that  all  nations  must  co- 
operate in  any  regulations  that  would  be  effective. 

Each  delegation  to  the  commission  submitted  a  report  of 
its  investigations  upon  the  problem  in  its  own  state.  In  this 
way  a  world-wide  view  of  the  question  was  afforded  the  Com- 
mission. Any  narrower  view  of  a  question  will  not  permit  of 
an  international  solution,  that  is,  one  having  in  view  the  in- 
terests of  the  whole  social  order.  It  would  be  reasonable  to 
expect  that  the  conclusions  and  recommendations  of  the  in- 
ternational commission  would  be  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  ex  parte  Royal  Opium  Commission  of  1 895,  which  viewed 
the  question  in  the  light  of  British  advantage. 

1     British  Treaty  Series,  1911,  No.  13. 

1     62nd  Cong.,  2d  Sess.,  Sen.  doc.  733,  p.  24. 

3     Report  International  Opium  Commission,  2  vols. 


152  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

While  the  commission  was  restricted  in  its  powers  to  "recog- 
nizing," "finding,"  "recommending"  and  so  on,  it  set  forth 
some  pretty  plain  implications  as  to  international  duty.  It 
"found"  that  nearly  every  country  represented  had  a  system 
of  regulating  the  opium  traffic  inclining  to  increasingly  severe 
measures.  The  implied  duty  was  so  plain  that  the  commission 
did  not  find  it  necessary  to  record  it:  if  the  principal  powers 
of  the  world  find  it  right  and  expedient  to  prohibit  the  impor- 
tation of  opium  it  is  their  duty  to  assist  a  weaker  nation  to 
maintain  its  defenses  against  the  drug. 

The  Commission  also  found  that  each  government  repre- 
sented had  strict  laws  against  the  smuggling  of  opium  into  its 
territory.  They  expressed  the  judgment  that  reasonable 
measures  should  be  adopted  to  prevent  the  export  of  opium 
to  a  country  prohibiting  its  importation.  That  is  tantamount 
to  saying  that  a  nation  that  wishes  to  be  considered  inter- 
nationally moral  should  not  permit  a  sister  nation  to  be  de- 
bauched by  that  against  which  it  protects  its  own  citizens.  If 
China  wished  to  exclude  opium  it  was  morally  wrong  for  any 
nation  to  export  the  drug  to  China  while  excluding  it  from  its 
own  shores.  It  reminds  us  of  the  words  of  Commissioner  Lin 
in  1839,  "Why  do  you  bring  to  our  land  opium  which  in  your 
land  is  not  used?" 

The  gist  of  the  nine  resolutions  of  the  Commission  are  as 
follows:  (1)  recognizes  the  sincerity  of  China  in  her  anti-opium 
struggle;  (2)  recommends  suppressive  legislation  in  every  land; 
(3)  urges  governments  to  re-examine  their  systems  of  regula- 
tion in  the  light  of  the  experience  of  other  nations;  (4)  avers 
it  to  be  the  duty  of  each  government  to  prevent  the  export  of 
opium  to  prohibiting  countries;  (5)  urges  drastic  measures 
against  the  spread  of  the  morphine  habit;  (6)  expresses  the 
advisability  of  a  scientific  study  of  anti-opium  remedies  and 
of  the  effects  of  opium  and  its  derivatives;  (7)  urges  the  clos- 
ing of  all  opium  divans  in  foreign  concessions  in  China;  (8) 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  153 

recommends  cooperation  with  Chinese  authorities  to  prohibit 
the  manufacture  of  anti-opium  remedies  containing  opium  or 
its  derivatives;  (9)  recommends  an  extension  of  the  national 
pharmacy  laws  to  subjects  doing  business  in  China. 

The  International  Opium  Commission,  because  of  its  limited 
powers  and  the  few  governments  participating,  did  not  exhibit 
a  full  degree  of  international  cooperation.  But  it  did  express 
a  willingness  upon  the  part  of  the  powers  most  concerned  to 
confer  with  each  other  upon  a  subject  of  considerable  delicacy, 
and  to  seek  some  solution  in  the  light  of  world  conditions. 
This  was  an  encouraging  manifestation  of  the  spirit  of  inter- 
nationalism. 

The  Commission  voiced  sound  principles  of  international 
conduct  and  kept  in  the  foreground  international  duties  rather 
than  national  rights.  It  suggested  measures  by  which  coordi- 
nation might  be  attained  by  the  various  nations  in  their  deal- 
ings with  the  subject.  The  findings  of  the  Commission  indi- 
cated the  probability  that  a  formally  constituted  internationa 
conference  could  adopt  a  convention  which  would  be  ratified 
by  the  various  governments.  The  Commission  therefore  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  calling  of  an  international  conference 
and  suggested  the  line  along  which  cooperative  action  was 
likely  to  move. 

On  September  1,  1909,  the  United  States,  through  its  State 
Department  again  addressed  the  powers  represented  at  the 
International  Opium  Commission  relative  to  the  calling  of  a 
conference  to  conventionalize  the  recommendations  of  that 
Commission.  All  the  governments  except  Austria-Hungary 
and  Turkey  approved  the  plan.  Great  Britain  expressed  the 
desire  that  cognizance  should  be  taken  of  the  problem  pre- 
sented by  the  rapid  spread  of  the  use  of  morphine  and  cocaine. 
She  also  said  she  would  not  discuss  her  treaty  arrangements 
with  China. 


154  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  First  International  Opium  Conference  met  at  the  Hague, 
December  1,  1912. 1  All  the  powers  represented  at  the  Opium 
Commission  sent  envoys  except  Austria-Hungary.  The  prin- 
ciple of  international  conduct,  which  had  been  enunciated  at 
Shanghai,  relative  to  the  duty  of  a  nation  not  to  export  a  com- 
modity to  another  nation  not  wishing  it,  was  established  as  a 
principle  of  international  law.  It  is  now  settled,  therefore,  that 
when  a  nation  declares  that  a  certain  commodity  may  not  be 
imported  within  her  territory  it  is  the  duty  of  every  other 
nation,  which  acknowledges  the  obligation  of  international 
law,  to  prohibit  its  nationals  from  exporting  said  commodity 
to  that  country.  The  emphasis  in  the  new  internationalism 
is  being  laid  upon  duties  rather  than  upon  rights.  Vattel  said: 
"Every  state  has  a  right  to  prohibit  the  entrance  of  foreign 
merchandise:  and  the  nations  that  are  affected  by  such  pro- 
hibition have  no  right  to  complain  of  it,  as  if  they  had  been  re- 
fused an  office  of  humanity."2  The  newer  point  of  view  is: 
It  is  the  duty  of  every  state  to  prohibit  its  citizens  from  en- 
gaging in  a  traffic  with  another  state  which  contravenes  the 
laws  of  that  state.  This  is  not  a  derogation  from  the  sovereignty 
of  the  state,  but  an  acknowledgement  that  there  are  other 
sovereign  states  whose  laws  must  limit  the  freedom  of  its  own 
citizens. 

Without  taking  up  the  articles  in  detail  it  may  be  said  that 
they  commit  the  nations  who  shall  ratify  them  to  undertake 
effective  measures  for  the  suppression  of  opium,  morphine, 
cocaine  and  other  habit-forming  drugs,  for  other  than  medicinal 
purposes,  prohibiting  or  regulating  foreign  and  domestic  com- 
merce in  the  same.  Chapter  4,  provides  for  cooperation  with 
China  in  her  efforts  to  suppress  the  traffic  in  opium,  morphine 
and  cocaine. 

Here,  then,  were  the  plenipotentiaries  from  twelve  of  the 

1  62nd  Cong.,  2d  Sess.  Sen.  doc.  733. 

2  Vattel,  "The  Law  of  Nations,"  (Chitty's  ed.),  p.  38. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  155 

leading  states  of  the  world  who  had  formulated  and  signed  a 
convention  whose  aim  was  the  total  suppression  of  opium  and 
other  habit-forming  drugs  for  other  than  medicinal  purposes. 
They  were  convinced  that  nothing  short  of  the  cooperation  of 
all  the  powers  of  the  world  would  render  their  work  effective. 
The  abstention  of  any  nation  would  render  nugatory  the  ef- 
fects of  the  convention,  for  that  country  might  become  the 
base  for  the  supply  of  the  drugs  which  the  other  nations,  for 
moral  reasons,  had  agreed  to  suppress.  The  question  was  how 
to  accomplish  the  universalization  of  the  project.  The  measure 
adopted  was  novel  in  international  procedure.  An  article  was 
adopted  by  which  the  other  thirty-four  powers  were  to  be  in- 
vited to  sign  the  anti-opium  pledge,  ratification  by  the  signa- 
tory powers  being  made  contingent  upon  the  result.  The 
Netherlands'  Government  was  to  correspond  with  the  nations 
not  represented  at  the  conference  and  it  was  understood  that 
the  United  States  would  use  its  influence  to  secure  the  ad- 
herence of  the  Latin- American  republics.  Accordingly,  the 
Department  of  State  instructed  its  diplomatic  representatives 
to  present  to  those  republics  arguments  why  they  should  co- 
operate in  this  important  measure  affecting  world  morals.  The 
success  of  the  United  States  in  securing  the  promises  of  all  but 
one  of  the  American  States  to  sign  the  convention  speaks  well 
for  the  solidarity  of  the  western  nations  which  has  been  fostered 
for  several  years  by  the  Pan  American  Union.  It  was  further 
agreed  that  if  all  the  powers  had  not  signed  by  December  1, 
1912,  the  Netherlands'  Government  was  to  invite  the  signa- 
tory powers  to  send  delegates  to  a  second  conference  at  the 
Hague  to  examine  into  the  possibility  of  nevertheless  deposit- 
ing their  ratifications. 

The  failure  to  secure  the  adherence  of  some  twelve  states 
was  the  occasion  for  the  calling  of  the  Second  International 
Opium  Conference  which  met  at  the  Hague,  July  1,  1913. 


156  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

Before  taking  up  the  problem  of  the  second  conference  men- 
tion should  be  made  of  the  action  taken  by  Great  Britain  where- 
by she  freed  herself  from  all  complicity  in  the  Chinese  trade. 
On  May  7,  1913,  a  resolution  was  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Commons  again  declaring  the  Indo-Chinese  opium  trade 
to  be  "morally  indefensible*'  and  calling  upon  the  government 
to  release  China  from  her  treaty  obligation  to  admit  the  Indian 
drug,  thus  anticipating  by  four  years  the  date  at  which  China, 
according  to  the  "ten-year  agreement,"  should  be  free  from 
importations  from  India.  During  the  debate  which  followed, 
Under-Secretary  of  State  Montague  announced  that  India  had 
abandoned  the  revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  opium  to  China 
and,  should  China  prove  to  be  sincere  in  her  efforts,  no  more 
opium  would  be  sold  to  her.  Thus  ended,  as  far  as  the  govern- 
ment was  concerned,  a  trade  which  had  existed  since  the  British 
occupation  of  India  in  1 767. 1 

The  problem  before  the  second  conference  was  how  to  secure 
the  cooperation  of  the  states  which  had  not  measured  up  to 
their  international  responsibility.  An  analysis  of  the  situa- 
tion was  made  and  it  was  found  that  Austria-Hungary,  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  had  held  back  under  a  misunderstanding  that 
adhesion  required  immediate  changes  in  their  municipal  law 
which  they  were  not  ready  to  make.  Switzerland  took  the 
ground  that  her  position,  as  a  non-opium  producing  country, 
could  make  no  difference  either  way.  Turkey  and  Greece  alone 
declined  to  sign — Turkey  for  financial  reasons,  Greece  assign- 
ing no  reason.  Three  states  sent  no  reply — Montenegro,  Servia 
and  Peru.  Bulgaria  and  Uruguay  had  promised  to  sign  but 
had  failed  to  do  so,  and  Rumania  was  unable  to  state  her 
position. 

It  was  plain  that  here  was  a  chance  for  some  missionary  work 
upon  the  part  of  those  nations  that  were  convinced  of  the 

1    Hansard,  H.  C.  Deb.  55.  p.  2150  ff. 


THE  NATIONS  AND  OPIUM  157 

righteousness  of  the  cause.  The  number  of  converts  had  grown 
from  twelve  to  thirty-four,  and  of  the  twelve  delinquents 
only  two  had  refused  to  sign.  So  there  was  good  reason 
to  believe  that  with  such  moral  suasion  as  might  be 
exerted  upon  sovereign  states  the  action  might  be  made 
unanimous.  During  the  session  of  the  conference  Peru 
signified  her  adherence.  This  added  moral  weight  inasmuch  as 
it  had  been  felt  that  her  reluctance  to  sign  had  been  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  coca  leaves,  from  which  cocaine  is  extracted,  are 
principally  grown  in  that  country.  Thus  America  stood  solidly 
for  the  convention  of  1912. 

At  the  time  of  writing  all  the  powers  had  signed  the  con- 
vention, except  Austria-Hungary,  Greece,  Servia  and  Turkey. 
In  February,  1915,  the  United  States  Minister  to  the  Nether- 
lands deposited  the  ratification  of  the  United  States. 

The  ratification  of  the  Opium  Convention  of  January,  1912, 
by  the  powers  involves  the  passage  by  each  of  suitable  legisla- 
tion to  carry  out  the  intentions  of  the  convention.  The  United 
States  performed  this  part  of  its  duty  by  the  passage  of  two 
bills  which  were  approved  January  17,  1914. 

It  will  be  of  great  encouragement  to  reform  agencies  to  re- 
flect how  agitation  in  a  great  moral  cause,  which  at  the  time 
may  seem  futile,  may  ripen  into  international  measures  of 
universal  scope.  No  moral  problem  is  capable  of  a  purely 
national  solution.  Agitation  is  at  first  generally  carried  on  by 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  enthusiasts  and  idealists, 
generally  designated  as  "cranks,"  whose  views  are  denounced 
as  impractical  by  those  whose  ears  are  filled  with  the  clamor 
of  the  market  place.  When  a  strong  enough  sentiment  has  been 
aroused  to  call  for  governmental  action  it  is  found  that  such 
is  the  intimate  relation  between  states,  owing  to  the  marvelous 
growth  of  the  means  of  communication,  that  effective  measures 
cannot  be  attained  short  of  international  cooperation.  What 
is  true  of  moral  measures  is  coming  to  be  increasingly  true  of 


158  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

economic  and  social  measures.  Hence  the  interest  in  inter- 
nationalism as  the  ultimate  stage  of  all  problems  which  affect 
the  general  welfare. 

It  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  that  the  United  States  led 
in  this,  as  she  has  in  other  measures  of  international  comity. 
She  proposed  the  coming  together  of  twelve  nations  to  discuss 
the  opium  question.  These  twelve  nations  formulated  measures 
for  the  suppression  of  the  traffic  which  have  been  adopted  with- 
out modification  by  all  the  principal  powers  of  the  world,  es- 
tablishing the  principle  that  it  is  the  duty  of  each  nation  to 
prevent  its  nationals  from  disregarding  the  prohibitions  of 
another  nation  touching  articles  of  import.  And  the  adoption 
by  the  nations  of  the  canons  of  these  twelve  apostles  of  inter- 
national morality  is  destined  to  carry  into  the  municipal  law 
of  every  land  penalties  for  engaging  in  a  commerce  which  was 
once  condoned  and  defended. 

This  may  be  some  atonement  for  the  wrongs  inflicted  upon 
China,  and  the  redemption  of  the  world  from  the  trammels  of 
the  opium  curse  may  be  credited  in  no  small  degree  to  that  non- 
Christian,  but  not  non-moral  country. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  we  have  studied  the  beginnings 
of  a  movement  that  is  growing  in  proportions  and  significance 
each  year.  Before  this  particular  mode  of  human  activity  was 
possible  in  any  large  degree  it  was  necessary  that  the  world 
should  be  discovered  and  delimited  and  that  communication 
should  be  possible  between  the  men  of  every  race  and  clime. 
These  results  were  accomplished  by  a  neighborhood  of  Euro- 
pean states  so  nearly  equal  in  power  that  they  became  units 
capable  of  cooperating  when  the  necessity  or  advantage  be- 
came apparent.  The  changes  wrought  by  modern  inventions 
in  the  production  and  exchange  of  nations,  caused  a  division 
of  labor  and  an  interdependence  upon  a  world  scale  undreamt 
of  in  the  days  of  national  economic  self-sufficiency.  The 
nations  were  forced  to  recognize  the  necessity  of  cooperation 
even  from  the  purely  individualistic  point  of  view. 

We  have  seen  what  a  unifying  effect  the  theory  of  evolution 
gave  to  scientific  thinking  and  how  an  awakened  religious 
conscience  sent  men  everywhere  to  hunt  out  the  spiritually 
needy  and  bring  them  within  the  reach  of  a  religion  that  teaches 
the  unity  of  the  race  and  the  behoof  of  human  brotherhood. 

We  have  confronted  a  bewildering  array  of  conferences, 
congresses,  associations,  and  other  manifestations  of  the  inter- 
national life  of  the  world.  These  cannot  all  be  of  equal  value 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  benefits  which  the  growth  of 
internationalism  seems  likely  to  confer  upon  the  human  race. 
They  must  represent  different  degrees  of  approach  to  what 
may  be  considered  as  ideal  or  normal  internationalism.  The 
question  naturally  arises,  What  are  the  elements  in  that  form 
of  cooperation  which  we  call  internationalism  which 


160  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

distinguish  it  from  other  movements  for  material  or  moral  bet- 
terment? Upon  what  principles  can  we  determine  whether 
a  collective  or  organized  activity  is  entitled  to  be  considered 
as  a  mode  or  manifestation  of  internationalism? 

Normal  internationalism  may  be  said  to  contain  three  ele- 
ments, (1)  equality  of  status,  (2)  fullness  of  participation  and 
(3)  universality  of  interest.  It  will  thus  appear  that  inter- 
nationalism is  both  qualitatively  and  quantitatively  deter- 
mined. Any  form  of  collective  activity  which  contains  these 
elements  may  be  said  to  be  a  mode  of  internationalism,  and 
its  approach  to  normal  internationalism  is  measured  by  the 
proportions  in  which  these  three  elements  are  present.  It 
will  be  convenient  to  discuss  these  elements  in  the  form  of 
principles. 

1 .  The  Agents  must  cooperate  upon  a  basis  of  equality.  This 
is  indeed  implied  in  the  very  notion  of  cooperation.  As  touches 
the  relationship  of  states  the  principle  is  fundamental.  Only 
sovereign  states  are  considered  capable  of  entering  into  treaty 
relations  and  only  such  participate  in  international  confer- 
ences. "A  state  is  sovereign,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
law  of  nations,  when  it  is  independent  of  every  other  state  in 
the  exercise  of  its  international  rights  externally,  and  in  the 
manner  in  which  it  lives  and  governs  itself  internally."1  In 
an  international  conference  the  smallest  state  stands  upon  an 
equal  footing  with  the  largest.  "Russia  and  Geneva  have 
equal  rights." 

China's  refusal  to  have  any  intercourse  with  the  other  nations 
of  the  world,  except  upon  the  basis  of  their  acknowledged  in- 
feriority, was  a  practical  denial  of  the  doctrine  of  sovereignty. 
There  could  be  no  full  and  complete  internationalism  as  long 
as  any  nation  assumed  such  an  attitude.  So  the  Allies  con- 
sidered themselves  justified,  in  1858,  in  using  force  to  secure 
from  China  the  admission  of  equality  of  status  for  all  the 

1    J.  B.  Moore,  "Digest  of  International  Law,"  Vol.  i,  p.  18. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  161 

powers.  Since  that  episode  China  has  acknowledged  the  obli- 
gations of  international  law  and  has  taken  her  place  in  many 
international  conferences. 

It  is  not  possible  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  sovereignty 
of  states,  but  some  questions  affecting  internationalism  thrust 
themselves  forward.  There  are  some  fifty  states  and  princi- 
palities, large  and  small,  that  are  accepted  as  free  and  inde- 
pendent, capable  of  entering  into  negotiations  with  other 
powers  and  of  taking  part  in  an  international  conference. 
These  are  the  nations  which  are  capable  of  cooperating  upon 
a  basis  of  equality.  While  internationalism,  as  far  as  its  of- 
ficial conferences  are  concerned,  is  limited,  by  the  unwritten 
political  constitution  of  the  world,  to  independent  states,  there 
is  a  spirit  about  it  that  chafes  under  political  conventionalities 
and  the  demands  of  etymological  accuracy.  In  one  of  its  mani- 
festations it  is  cooperation  between  sovereign  nations,  but  is 
it  therefore  settled  that  there  are  not  large  and  important 
political  groups,  outside  the  pale  of  the  admittedly  indepen- 
dent states,  whose  racial  solidarity  or  geographical  situation 
entitle  them  to  participation  in  world  councils  and  whose  co- 
operation seems  to  be  demanded  to  round  out  a  full  measure 
of  the  international  life  of  the  world?  Canada,  India,  Aus- 
tralasia, Cape  Colony  and  other  portions  of  the  British  Em- 
pire take  no  part  in  international  conferences  at  which  Cuba 
and  Monaco,  Luxemburg  and  Liberia  have  equal  rights  with 
the  envoys  of  Great  Britain,  who  sign  conventions  for  and  in 
behalf  of  her  colonies  and  protectorates.  Egypt  lacks  a  de- 
gree of  independence  which  would  give  her  a  seat  at  the  council 
board.  The  former  kingdoms  of  Finland  and  Poland  have  no 
voice. 

When  we  recollect  what  part  the  vicissitudes  of  war  and 
political  fortune  have  played  in  the  independence  or  subordi- 
nation of  peoples  which  seem  to  possess  the  characteristics  of 
nationality,  we  do  not  feel  at  all  confident  that  the  whole 
human  race  is  so  nicely  distributed  within  the  half-hundred 


162  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

independent  states  that  there  is  even  an  approximation  to 
representative  participation  in  a  world  project.  This  is  not 
saying  that  leadership  must  not  remain  with  the  enlightened 
and  advanced  nations  of  the  world,  or  that  the  attainment  of 
an  internationalism  that  shall  be  thoroughly  representative  of 
all  races  and  political  groups  of  the  world  must  not  be  gradual. 
But  there  are  no  grounds  for  congratulating  ourselves  that  we 
have  attained  a  full  measure  of  internationalism  when  those 
nations  which  are  recognized  to-day  as  sovereign  unite  in  a 
project.  There  are  many  political  and  racial  groups  that  are 
still  in  their  childhood  and  are  not  capable  of  becoming  in- 
dependent states.  For  such,  internationalism  should  mean 
the  assistance  of  the  strong  nations  to  self-help  and  self-ex- 
pression— not  to  exploitation  and  condemnation  to  a  state  of 
helpless  and  hopeless  dependency. 

There  are  indications  of  a  growth  in  international  morality 
and  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  nations  to  assume  the  obliga- 
tions which  close  association  in  a  practically  frontierless  world 
plainly  imposes.  It  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that  even  the 
doctrine  of  national  sovereignty  has  its  limitations.  No  one 
holds  today  that  any  nation  has  the  right  to  do  anything  it 
pleases  regardless  of  the  rights  of  others.  It  would  be  physi- 
cally impossible  for  a  nation  to  live  in  absolute  seclusion  to- 
day. The  day  of  hermit  nations  has  passed.  Finding  itself 
in  a  society  of  states  with  equal  rights  it  must  admit  such  a 
modification  of  the  doctrine  of  sovereignty  as  a  peaceful 
life  with  its  neighbors  requires.  National  individualism  is  as 
unsocial  and  anarchistic  in  its  effects  as  individualism  in 
persons. 

There  was  a  clear  recognition  of  the  demands  of  international 
morality  in  the  Opium  Convention  of  1912,  which  laid  down 
the  principle  that  a  government  must  not  permit  its  nationals 
to  ship  from  its  shores  to  another  country  any  commodity  to 
which  that  other  nation  refuses  entrance  at  its  ports.  So  it 
cannot  be  maintained  with  rigor  that  a  sovereign  nation  is 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  163 

"independent  of  every  other  state  in  the  exercise  of  its  inter- 
national rights  externally."  And  even  the  way  it  "lives  and 
governs  itself  internally"  is  affected  by  the  acts  of  international 
conferences  in  which  it  has  participated  and  which  involve 
changes  in,  or  additions  to,  its  municVpfel  law. 

There  have  been  several  attempts  to  deal  with  qu^tions 
affecting  the  conditions  of  the  child-races  that  show  an  ap- 
preciation of  international  duty  on  the  part  of  the  strong 
nations.  One  of  the  first  questions  of  a  broad  character  that 
was  discussed  in  a  council  of  nations  was  the  African  slave 
trade.  Later  the  question  of  the  importation  of  arms  and 
alcohol  into  Africa  received  the  attention  of  the  same  powers. 
The  opium  question  involved  international  justice  to  a  nation 
struggling  against  heavy  odds  to  free  itself  from  a  habit  that 
was  rapidly  destroying  its  people. 

The  principle  of  equality  of  status  was  violated  in  the  at- 
tempt to  establish  a  Confederation  of  Europe  following  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815.  At  the  Conference  of  Troppau, 
in  1820,  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia  signed  a  protocol  declar- 
ing that  "states  which  have  undergone  a  change  of  govern- 
ment due  to  revolution,  the  results  of  which  threaten  other 
states,  ipso  facto  cease  to  be  members  of  the  European  Al- 
liance, and  remain  excluded  from  it  until  their  situation  gives 
guaranties  for  legal  order  and  stability.  If,  owing  to  such 
alterations,  immediate  danger  threatens  other  states,  the 
Powers  bind  themselves,  by  peaceful  means,  or  if  need  be  by 
arms,  to  bring  the  guilty  state  into  the  bosom  of  the  Great 
Alliance."  That  is,  these  three  powers  constituted  themselves 
a  committe  on  the  credentials  of  sovereign  states  and  passed 
a  rule  by  which  they  might  exclude  from  the  society  of  equals 
any  nation  whose  form  of  government  did  not  satisfy  them  as 
meeting  the  requirements  of  "legitimacy."  Great  Britain,  who 
was  represented  at  the  conference,  declined  to  take  part  in  the 
"creation  of  a  species  of  general  government  in  Europe,  with 


164  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

a  superintending  Directory,  destructive  of  all  correct  notions 
of  internal  sovereignty."1 

When  we  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  principle  of 
equality  of  status  as  regards  unofficial,  or  private  congresses 
we  find  that  i-V^e  ar£  more  apt  to  be  representative  of  all 
national  Croups  than  tne  official,  for  membership  and  status 
a~  determined  by  interest  in  the  particular  project  and  not 
by  political  distinctions.  The  representative  of  a  national 
group  is  not  debarred  because  his  state  does  not  enjoy  com- 
plete independence.  To  secure  the  broadest  results  in  any 
collective  activity  it  is  essential  that  all  who  take  part  in  a 
congress  have  equal  rights.  Any  abrogation  of  this  principle 
prevents  a  near  approach  to  normal  internationalism. 

2.  Participation  must  be  open  to  all  those  who  have  life  in" 
terests,  and  must  be  general.  The  highest  degree  of  participa- 
tion is  that  in  which  every  national  group  is  represented.  This 
may  be  termed  omni-nationality,  to  use  a  word  suggested  by 
M.  Paul  Otlet.2  In  the  realm  of  official  conferences  this  de- 
gree has  been  attained  by  the  Universal  Postal  Union  which 
has  the  adherence  of  all  the  sovereign  states.  Omni-nation- 
ality may  be  attained  gradually  by  the  subsequent  adherence 
of  powers  which  were  not  represented  when  the  original  pro- 
ject was  formed  by  a  comparatively  small  number  of  nations. 
The  Latin-American  republics  were  not  represented  at  the 
First  Hague  Conference,  but  later  they  signified  their  accept- 
ance of  its  principles.  They  took  official  part  in  the  Second 
Hague  Conference.  The  twelve  powers  which  took  part  in 
the  First  Opium  Conference  saw  that  the  effectiveness  of  the 
measures  concerted  for  the  suppression  of  the  traffic  in  opium, 
and  other  habit-producing  drugs,  depended  upon  their  adoption 
by  all  the  other  powers.  Accordingly  steps  were  taken  to  secure 
the  adherence  of  the  remaining  thirty-four  states. 

There  may  be  full  participation  without  omni-nationality 

1     Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  10,  pp.  27-29. 
9    Annuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale,  1908-9,  p. 38. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  165 

when  there  is  free  cooperation  between  all  who  are  interested 
in  any  particular  project  which,  from  its  very  nature,  is  limited 
to  a  comparatively  small  number  of  national  groups.  When 
the  phylloxera  was  destroying  the  vines  of  Europe  in  the  late 
70's  an  international  conference  was  called  to  adopt  means  to 
exterminate  the  pest.  In  this  conference  twelve  vine-growing 
countries  took  part.  The  limited  scope  of  a  project  of  course 
affects  the  quality  of  its  internationalism,  as  will  be  shown  in 
considering  the  next  principle,  but  as  far  as  fullness  of  par- 
ticipation was  concerned  the  Phylloxera  Conference  probably 
fulfilled  the  requirements  of  internationalism.  Participation 
as  wide  as  the  interests  involved  is  demanded. 

Participation  by  other  nations  in  a  project  of  general  in- 
terest  may  be  stimulated  by  those  powers  which  have  led  a 
movement.  When  the  success  or  failure  of  the  measures  pro- 
posed by  the  First  Opium  Conference  seemed  to  turn  upon 
general  cooperation  by  all  the  powers,  it  was  not  thought  suf- 
ficient to  simply  invite  them  to  sign  the  convention,  but  efforts 
were  made  through  diplomatic  channels  to  urge  upon  their 
attention  cogent  arguments  why  they  should  give  their  ad- 
herence to  a  matter  of  such  vital  interest  to  a  large  proportion 
of  the  human  race.  Peru  was  urged,  in  the  interests  of  inter- 
national good  morals,  to  take  a  stand  which  seemed  to  be  op- 
posed to  her  own  selfish  interests.  Moreover,  Switzerland's 
position,  that  inasmuch  as  she  had  no  opium  problem  to  deal 
with,  her  adherence  was  a  matter  of  indifference  to  the  cause, 
was  shown  to  be  not  well  taken.  Both  these  countries  were 
persuaded  to  sign  the  convention.  This  reveals  an  educational 
side  to  internationalism  even  within  diplomatic  circles  which, 
while  necessarily  quite  limited,  is  nevertheless  of  value.  It 
suggests  some  possibilities  of  international  diplomatic  mis- 
sionary work  which  are  interesting. 

In  the  domain  of  unofficial  congresses  and  associations  the 
approach  to  normal  internationalism  is  to  be  similarly  de- 
termined. If  the  aim  of  an  organization  be  to  associate  all 


166  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

groups  pursuing  the  same  end,  without  distinction  as  to  na- 
tionality or  race,  it  possesses  a  high  degree  of  internationalism. 
Those  who  restrict  their  cooperative  efforts  to  a  small  number 
of  nations  possess  a  low  degree  of  internationalism.  There  are 
some  associations  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  whose  only  claim 
to  the  title  "international"  is  in  the  fact  that  they  have  a  mem- 
bership both  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  same 
limitations  apply  to  some  European  organizations.  Anything 
"pertaining  to  or  mutually  affecting  two  or  more  nations"  may 
properly  be  said  to  be"international,"  but  it  is  not  necessarily 
a  mode  of  internationalism.  A  bridge  across  Niagara  River  is 
an  international  bridge,  but  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  ex- 
ample of  internationalism.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lighthouse 
on  Cape  Spartel,  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  is  a  manifestation 
of  internationalism,  for,  in  1865,  eleven  powers  signed  a  con- 
vention to  cooperate  with  Morocco  in  its  maintenance. 

A  glance  at  the  chart  on  page  70  will  show  how  far  short  of 
full  participation  some  questions  of  very  general  interest  fall. 

3.  The  end  aimed  at  must  be  universal,  that  is,  in  the  interests 
of  the  whole  social  order.  This  does  not  mean  that  every  move- 
ment which  merits  consideration  as  a  mode  of  internationalism 
must  envisage  the  entire  interest  of  humanity.  That  would, 
of  course,  be  an  absurdity.  But  its  aim  should  be  such  that, 
within  the  range  of  activity  which  the  organization  has  set  for 
itself,  the  interests  of  society  in  general,  both  within  and  with- 
out the  bounds  of  race  and  nation,  would  be  served.  The 
sphere  of  activity  may  be  very  restricted,  but  the  aim  must 
be  universal  within  that  sphere.  A  very  commonplace  example 
may  make  the  meaning  clear. 

In  191 1 ,  there  was  organized  in  Copenhagen  the  International 
Association  for  the  Extermination  of  the  Rat.  Now  the  rat 
plays  a  very  minor  role  in  the  whole  social  order.  Yet  the 
association  would  show  a  high  degree  of  internationalism  if 
its  cooperative  efforts  should  reach  every  rat-infested  country 
so  effectively  that  the  bubonic  plague  should  be  suppressed 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  167 

and  the  loss  of  property  and  life  through  fire  caused  by  rats 
should  be  prevented.  The  universality  in  this  case  would 
reach  the  whole  situation  as  far  as  the  rat  is  concerned. 

There  have  been  many  international  conferences  upon 
'questions  of  a  local  or  particular  interest.  For  example,  na- 
tions interested  in  certain  systems  of  coinage  have  formed 
monetary  unions.  There  is  a  Scandinavian  Monetary  Union 
of  three  members,  a  Latin  Union  of  five  countries,  while  the 
five  Central  American  states  have  a  similar  union.  These  are 
all  local.  But  interests  of  a  much  broader  nature  were  repre- 
sented at  the  four  International  Monetary  Conferences  held 
between  1865  and  1892. 

The  policing  of  the  fishing  waters  of  the  North  Sea,  which 
was  undertaken  by  six  powers  in  1 882,  concerns  a  smaller  por- 
tion of  mankind  than  the  task  of  the  Permanent  International 
Council  for  the  Exploration  of  the  Sea  in  which  eight  nations, 
including  the  United  States,  have  a  part. 

Certain  technical  questions  connected  with  the  operation 
of  railways  upon  the  continent  have  drawn  seventeen  powers 
into  the  Unite  technique  des  chemins  defer.  But  the  Inter- 
national Railway  Congress,  which  has  held  eight  congresses 
and  maintains  a  permanent  bureau  at  Brussels,  represents  a 
much  wider  interest,  although  it  is  an  unofficial  congress. 

On  this  side  the  Atlantic  there  are  international  unions  to 
advance  particular  interests.  The  Pan-American  Union  is 
formed  of  American  republics  which  are  presumed  to  have 
mutual  interests  to  be  conserved.  Another  union,  still  more 
restricted  in  its  scope,  is  that  of  the  five  Central  American 
states. 

These  official  conferences  and  unions,  which  are  limited  in 
their  interests  and  membership,  must  be  considered  to  ap- 
proach less  nearly  to  ideal  internationalism  than  such  organi- 
zations as  the  Universal  Postal  Union,  the  Universal  Tele- 
graphic Union,  the  Universal  Sanitary  Union  and  the  Inter- 
national Geodedic  Association. 


168  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

The  multitude  of  unofficial  congresses  and  associations 
represent  all  degrees  of  internationalism  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest.  While  many  of  them  are  narrow  in  their  scope 
and  limited  in  their  membership,  yet  taken  altogether  they 
present  remarkable  evidence  of  the  proportions  which  the 
international  life  of  the  world  has  attained. 

What  of  the  future  growth  of  internationalism?  Has  it 
exhibited  any  tendencies  which  enable  us  to  form  a  judgment 
as  to  what  its  growth  will  mean  to  the  human  race?  Does  it 
promise  a  fuller  measure  of  self-realization  to  the  life  of  the 
world? 

We  need  not  expect  to  find  any  tendencies  in  international- 
ism that  are  distinct  from  those  observable  throughout  the 
world  to-day.  It  is  simply  the  life  of  the  world  showing  above 
the  fences.  It  is  the  aggregate  of  all  the  interests  of  thousands 
of  groups  distributed  through  all  nations,  each  striving  to  at- 
tain the  ultimate  and  universal  in  its  own  sphere.  So  the  ten- 
dencies which  internationalism  may  exhibit  cannot  be  very 
different  from  the  tendencies  of  life  nearer  the  ground,  so  to 
speak. 

1.  Internationalism  leads  away  from  absolutism  towards 
democracy.  Absolutism  stays  itself  upon  authority.  Inter- 
nationalism does  not  concern  itself  with  the  "legitimacy"  of 
any  form  of  government  if  it  be  capable  of  cooperating  to  ad- 
vance the  general  good.  It  germinated  in  those  steamy  days 
of  unrest  when  men  were  questioning  the  grounds  of  legitimacy 
and  were  seeking  to  establish  authority  on  something  more* 
substantial  than  patents  of  nobility  and  accidents  of  birth. 
The  effort,  in  the  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to 
establish  peaceful  relations  in  Europe  by  the  grace  of  three 
"holy"  powers,  pledged  to  suppress  the  rising  tide  of  consti- 
tutionalism and  democracy,  was  a  failure.  It  had  not  yet 
been  learned  that  the  cooperation  which  was  to  advance  world- 
unity  and  peace  was  not  only  quantitatively  but  also  qualita- 
tively different  from  secret  treaties  and  diplomatic  cabals 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  169 

from  which  the  people  were  excluded.  Absolutism  arranged 
the  foreign  affairs  of  a  state  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  royal  ex- 
chequer, the  interests  of  a  dynasty,  the  whims  of  a  monarch 
or  his  mistress.  It  had  been  a  great  shock  to  absolutism  in 
Europe  when  a  band  of  sans  culottes  in  Paris  had  touched  the 
holy  ark  entrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  ministries  for  foreign 
affairs.  What  the  growth  in  constitutionalism,  so  much  feared 
by  Metternich  and  the  Holy  Alliance,  meant  for  absolutism 
could  hardly  be  missed  inasmuch  as  the  experiment  of  admit- 
ting the  people  to  a  voice  in  foreign  affairs  had  been  so  con- 
spicuously successful  in  the  case  of  the  American  republic 
whose  Constitution  provided  that  all  treaties  with  foreign 
powers  should  be  made  by  the  President  "by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,"  and  that  the  declaration 
and  conduct  of  war  were  functions  of  Congress  alone.  In  con- 
stitutional England  the  accountability  of  the  office  of  foreign 
affairs  to  the  people  of  England  "in  Commons"  was  clearly 
expressed  by  Secretary  Canning  in  words  already  quoted.1 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  traditions  of  secret  diplomacy 
are  the  conferences  held  by  the  powers  to-day.  The  questions 
proposed  for  discussion  are  generally  submitted  to  each  govern- 
ment months,  and  sometimes  years,  before  the  assembling  of 
the  envoys.  This  gives  time  for  the  crystallization  of  public 
opinion  on  the  subject  which  has  undoubted  weight  in  the 
decisions  of  the  conference.  Furthermore,  it  is  demanded 
to-day  that  the  proceedings  of  an  international  conference  be 
made  public.2  Nations  are  coming  to  scrutinize  the  public 
acts  of  their  envoys  and  foreign  offices.  The  world  at  large 
is  no  less  critical  of  the  position  which  any  individual  nation 
takes  in  questions  affecting  the  general  welfare  of  the  world. 
The  trend,  therefore,  is  away  from  absolutism  and  bureaucracy 
towards  democracy  under  the  strong  feeling  that  public  of- 
ficials and  foreign  ministers  are  accountable  to  the  people  for 

1     Supra,  p.  25 
1     Supra,  p.  64 


170  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

the  policies  they  support  and  the  adherence  they  give  or  with- 
hold from  measures  which  an  enlightened  public  opinion  hold 
to  be  for  the  good  of  society. 

2.  Internationalism  tends  to  be  more  and  more  concerned 
with  the  higher  interests  of  mankind.  The  first  thing  a  nation 
has  to  fight  for  is  its  domain.  So  the  early  congresses  were 
largely  to  settle  boundaries  and  to  determine  status.  When  a 
nation  is  firmly  established  within  its  domain  it  can  treat  with 
its  neighbors  on  such  questions  as  the  use  and  control  of  bound- 
ary rivers. 

When  its  borders  are  crossed  by  railways  and  telegraph 
lines  and  its  nationals  engage  in  enterprises  making  use  of  the 
high  seas,  such  as  fishing,  navigation  and  the  laying  of  sub- 
marine cables,  it  finds  it  necessary  to  agree  with  other  nations 
as  to  the  control  and  regulation  of  these  in  the  interests  of  the 
world's  business.  Then,  too,  it  finds  that  the  health  of  its 
people  and  protection  against  plagues  that  destroy  man,  beast 
and  plant  can  only  be  secured  through  measures  concerted 
with  other  nations.  The  expanding  business  of  its  nationals 
demands  freer  scope  and  enlarged  facilities.  So  it  joins  with 
others  in  the  establishment  of  a  universal  postal  system,  the 
standardization  of  weights,  measures  and  time,  the  measure- 
ment of  the  earth's  surface  and  the  exploration  of  the  sea,  the 
publication  of  customs'  tariffs,  the  exchange  of  official  docu- 
ments, the  protection  of  industrial,  artistic  and  literary  prop- 
erty by  international  copyright  and  patent.  Matters  of  mutual 
interest  between  nations  were  formerly  settled  by  treaty,  and 
the  most  favored  nation  clause  was  an  attempt  to  establish 
some  sort  of  uniformity.  Now  matters  which  affect  many  or 
all  nations  are  gathered  together  in  agreements  or  conventions 
in  which  the  participation  of  all  nations  concerned  is  invited. 

When  the  premises  were  once  established  that  the  growing 
oneness  of  the  world  from  a  commercial  and  sanitary  point  of 
view  demanded  international  cooperation  it  was  not  difficult 
to  argue  that  social  and  moral  questions  must  seek  the  same 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  171 

solution.  So  the  African  slave  trade  was  finally  abolished  and 
the  importation  of  firearms  and  alcohol  into  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent regulated.  Measures  were  adopted  looking  to  the  sup- 
pression of  the  white  slave  traffic  and  the  circulation  of 
obscene  literature.  The  need  of  legislation  to  protect  the  work- 
ing classes  against  dangerous  employments  and  processes 
received  the  attention  of  the  powers.  One  of  the  earliest  con- 
cerns of  international  conferences  was  the  mitigation  of  the 
evils  of  war  and  the  definition  of  the  rights  of  neutrals.  Then 
the  hope  of  the  settlement  of  international  disputes  by  arbi- 
tration was  stimulated  by  the  Hague  Conferences.  A  long 
step  forward  in  the  establishment  of  an  international  ethical 
standard  was  taken  in  the  Opium  Conference  of  1912. 

The  earlier  conferences  were  largely  engaged  in  the  establish- 
ment of  rights,  the  later  in  the  adjustment  of  national  life  to 
the  demands  of  international  duties  and  obligations.  This 
seems  to  justify  the  hope  that  even  in  the  official  international 
life  of  the  world  the  moral  and  spiritual  interests  of  mankind 
will  have  a  larger  attention  and,  under  the  influence  of  a  grow- 
ing world-consciousness,  the  dependent  and  backward  peoples 
of  the  world  will  experience  the  force  of  an  international  brother- 
hood which  narrow  and  selfish  nationalism  denied  them. 

In  the  domain  of  the  unofficial  congresses  the  spiritualizing 
tendencies  are  even  more  marked.  There  is  no  plan  for  the 
betterment  of  mankind  that  has  not  its  international  expression. 

3.  Internationalism  seeks  to  establish  permanent  relations 
between  all  interested  in  advancing  the  material  and  moral  better- 
ment of  mankind.  Many  of  the  earlier  congresses  were  ephe- 
meral. The  representatives  met,  exchanged  views  and  sepa- 
rated without  any  definite  organization  for  continuing  the 
work.  Many  of  the  congresses  which  came  together  under  the 
somewhat  artificial  stimulus  of  the  early  world's  fairs  funct- 
ioned but  once  and  then  ceased  to  exist.  But  the  tendency 
towards  permanency  will  be  seen  by  examining  the  list  of  con- 
gresses and  conferences  given  in  the  appendix  and  noting  how 


172  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

many  of  them  have  bureaus  or  some  other  form  of  continua- 
tion agency  to  render  the  work  of  the  group  permanent,  cumu- 
lative and  therefore  efficient.  Many  of  these  bodies  have  fixed 
headquarters  with  a  salaried  staff.  Berne,  Brussels,  the  Hague 
and  Paris  are  the  favorite  cities  for  such  headquarters. 

The  fact  that  there  are  now  so  many  international  unions 
composed  of  states  has  stimulated  the  hope  that  the  nations 
are  moving  rapidly  towards  world  federation.  This  idea  is 
particularly  attractive  to  Americans  who  point  to  the  federa- 
tion of  the  forty-eight  states  of  the  Union  and  ask  whether  the 
federative  tendencies  of  internationalism  may  not  eventually 
result  in  a  world  union.  The  establishment  of  the  Hague 
Tribunal  and  the  increasing  favor  with  which  the  project  for 
international  arbitration  has  been  received  everywhere  have 
done  much  to  stimulate  this  hope.  It  is  hardly  the  time,  when 
the  nations  of  Europe  are  at  war  and  the  minds  of  men  are  con- 
fused with  the  strife,  to  make  any  bold  predictions  as  to  the 
success  of  future  attempts  at  world  federation. 

There  are  conditions  favorable  to  federation  in  the  United 
States  which  do  not  obtain  in  the  world  at  large.  The  langu- 
age, the  legal  system,  the  educational  ideals  of  the  original 
states  were  an  English  heritage  which  has  passed  on  to  nearly 
all  the  succeeding  states  and  the  cosmopolitan  population 
which  has  spread  from  sea  to  sea  has  been  moulded  into  a 
national  homogeneity  under  the  influence  of  these  ideals.  The 
federation  of  forty-eight  states,  however  varied  their  geogra- 
phical features,  with  a  homogeneous  population,  speaking  the 
same  language,  is  a  far  different  matter  from  the  federation 
of  nations  speaking  different  languages,  with  varying  national 
ideals,  possessing  different  degrees  of  culture  and  composed  of 
different  races.  What  we  are  called  upon  to  do  in  this  study  is 
to  note  the  tendency  of  the  various  activities  we  have  reviewed 
to  unify  the  life  of  the  world,  and  make  a  larger  degree  of  co- 
operation possible  in  the  future.  The  need  of  an  international 
language  is  recognized  in  the  various  attempts  to  create  a 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  173 

practical  auxiliary  language.  But  the  situation  in  this  regard 
is  not  very  hopeful.  Some  progress  has  been  made  towards  har- 
monizing the  legal  systems  of  the  various  states  and  remedying 
the  conflict  of  laws.  A  body  of  international  law  has  been  ac- 
cumulated, but  with  no  power  to  enforce  it.  The  educational 
systems  of  the  world  tend  toward  unification.  Much  inter- 
national business  is  now  carried  on  by  means  of  successful 
unions  supported  by  a  large  number  of  states.  Racial  preju- 
dices are  being  softened  through  contact  and  association  is 
increasing  in  many  different  ways.  But  the  divisive  force  of 
a  narrow  nationalism  still  powerfully  operates  in  the  world 
and  the  subject  which  engages  the  attention  of  the  world  to- 
day is  how  to  bring  about  a  lasting  peace  in  Europe.  It  is  the 
same  question  which  agitated  the  minds  of  nations  weary  of 
war  one  hundred  years  ago.  It  remains  to  be  seen  how  the 
growth  of  internationalism  during  the  past  fifty  years  will 
cause  the  terms  of  peace  to  differ  from  those  of  the  Congress 
of  Vienna.  It  will  rest  very  largely  upon  the  terms  of  the  peace 
how  soon  the  influences  which  have  produced  such  a  large 
international  life  shall  be  permitted  to  resume  their  pacific 
work  of  unifying  the  world.  It  is  not  possible  at  this  time  to 
do  more  than  to  express  the  belief  that  after  this  fresh  proof  of 
the  futility  and  destructiveness  of  war  has  had  its  effect  upon 
the  mind  of  the  race  that  there  will  be  a  quickened  interest  in 
promoting  the  growth  of  internationalism  which  will  result 
ultimately  in  world  peace. 

4.  Internationalism  tends  to  equalize  world  conditions.  Con- 
ditions of  economic  and  social  inequality  throughout  the  world 
tend  to  create  unrest.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  facili- 
ties for  quick  and  cheap  transportation  are  as  abundant  as 
they  are  to-day.  The  laborer,  seeking  to  improve  his  economic 
condition,  becomes  a  bird  of  passage  whose  flight  north  or 
south,  east  or  west,  is  determined  by  industrial  inequalities 
in  the  world  field.  Capital  flows  quickly  to  that  part  of  the 
world  which  promises  the  largest  and  quickest  returns,  rather 


174  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

than  the  surest.  Men  seek  to  escape  the  social  and  political 
inequalities  and  disabilities*  imposed  by  states  that  are  reac- 
tionary and  stagnant  because  unresponsive  to  modern  stimuli. 

The  effect  of  internationalism  is  to  level  up  the  social  and 
economic  life  of  the  world.  It  syndicates  the  knowledge  of  the 
best  in  the  interests  of  all.  As  conditions  are  improved  in  the 
backward  state,  and  the  contrasts  in  economic  opportunity 
become  less  sharp,  the  ties  of  the  native  land  will  be  less  easily 
sundered.  The  chances  for  immensely  profitable  investments 
in  undeveloped  and  exploitable  countries  will  fade  away  with 
improved  conditions  of  control  in  their  governments.  The 
ignorance  of  values  upon  the  part  of  natives  which  enabled 
the  European  trader  to  barter  brass  rings  for  ivory  tusks  or 
glass  beads  for  furs  is  fast  disappearing.  Foreigners  will  re- 
ceive fewer  valuable  concessions  when  native  students  return 
from  American  or  European  mining  and  technical  schools 
equipped  with  the  latest  scientific  knowledge. 

5.  Internationalism  tends  to  promote  peace  among  the  nations. 
Internationalism  means  the  association  of  men  of  various 
nations  along  the  line  of  some  particular  interest,  be  it 
economic,  scientific,  aesthetic,  religious  or  social.  Whatever 
may  be  their  political  differences  or  national  peculiarities  they 
are  united  in  the  one  interest  that  calls  them  together.  They 
seek  the  best  means  of  attaining  a  common  purpose.  Ac- 
quaintance begets  respect,  sympathy  and  a  spirit  of  mutual 
helpfulness.  As  they  plan  together,  enjoy  the  exchanges  of 
courtesy  and  hospitality,  the  peculiarities  of  race,  custom  and 
speech  fade  away.  The  real  unity  of  humanity  is  seen  to  be  a 
spiritual  one  which  underlies  all  the  incidents  of  geographical 
distribution,  climatic  influences  and  isolation.  So  men  come 
to  understand  each  other,  to  feel  that  there  is  a  substratum 
that  is  omni-national  and  omni-racial.  Such  an  experience 
leads  to  world-consciousness,  to  a  feeling  that  the  interests  of 
the  whole  social  order  are  vaster  than  the  interests  of  any  one 
nation. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONCLUSIONS  175 

Men  who  have  caught  such  a  world-vision,  it  may  be  only 
along  some  particular  line  of  progress,  are  impatient  of  any- 
thing which  interrupts  and  disturbs  those  helpful  relations, 
anything  which  exalts  the  purely  sectional  and  national.  They 
loathe  war,  not  only  for  its  inhumanity  and  waste,  but  because 
it  fosters  that  hatred  which  hinders  the  self-realization  of  the 
human  race.  Those  who  have  attained  the  "international 
mind,"  are  bound  to  be  lovers  of  peace  and  haters  of  war. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  bitter  feelings  engend- 
ered by  the  present  war  will  retard  the  resumption  of  those 
cordial  relations  which  existed  between  the  men  of  the  warring 
nations.  But  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  when  the  smoke  of 
battle  rolls  away  and  the  misunderstandings  caused  by  war- 
lies  and  hate-inspired  misrepresentations  have  been  cleared 
up,  the  wounds  of  war  will  heal  far  more  quickly  because  in- 
ternationalism has  attained  such  a  growth. 


176  THE  RISE  OF  INTERNATIONALISM 


VITA 

The  writer  was  born  in  Rochester,  Minnesota,  June  5,  1867, 
and  six  months  later  was  taken  to  Minneapolis  which  was  his 
home  until  1905.  He  attended  the  public  schools  and  was 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Minnesota  in  1889,  receiv- 
ing the  degree  of  A.  B.  He  was  graduated  from  the  McCor- 
mick  Theological  Seminary,  Chicago,  in  1893,  and  the  same 
year  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
After  one  year  in  city  mission  work  in  Minneapolis  he  spent 
a  year  in  a  tour  of  the  world,  traveling  in  Japan,  China,  India, 
Egypt  and  the  Levant.  Returning  to  Minneapolis  in  1895, 
he  lectured  upon  the  Orient  and  a  year  later  became  editor 
and  publisher  of  The  North  and  West.  During  this  time  he 
served  a  term  as  a  trustee  of  Macalester  College.  After  the 
consolidation  of  The  North  and  West  with  The  Interior,  of 
Chicago,  in  1902,  he  continued  to  do  editorial  writing  until  he 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Glen  Avon  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Duluth,  Minnesota,  in  1905.  During  his  pastorate,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Duluth  Public  Library  Board  and  president  of 
the  Central  Council  of  the  Associated  Charities.  His  interest 
in  social  problems  led  him  to  resign  his  pastorate  in  1912  to 
take  up  graduate  work  at  Columbia  University  under  the 
Faculty  of  Political  Science.  He  received  his  A.  M.  from 
Columbia  in  1913.  His  subject  of  major  interest  was  Social 
Economy  and  he  attended  the  Seminars  conducted  by  Pro- 
fessors Edward  T.  Devine  and  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay.  His 
minors  were  Sociology  and  Economics. 


BOOKS  CONSULTED 

John  Bassett  Moore,  "Digest  of  International  Law. 
Holland,  "Studies  in  International  Law." 

A.  S.  Hershey,  "Essentials  of  International  Law." 
Vattel,  "The  Law  of  Nations." 

T.  D.  Woolsey,  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  International 

Law." 

George  C.  Wilson,  "Handbook  of  International  Law." 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  "The  International  Mind." 
Paul  S.  Reinsch,  "Public  International  Unions." 
Raymond  T.  Bridgeman,  "World  Organization." 
Raymond  T.  Bridgeman,  "The  First  Book  of  World  Law." 
David  J.  Hill,  "World  Organization." 
P.  H.  Eijkman,  "L*  Internationalisme  Scientifique." 
Gustave  Herve,  "L' Internationalisme"  * 

Leon  Bourgeois,  "La  Societe  des  Nations" 
Wilbur  F.  Crafts,  "A  Primer  of  the  Science  of  International- 
ism." 

B.  F.  Trueblood,  "The  Federation  of  the  World." 
Harold  Bolce,  "New  Internationalism." 

Joseph  H.  Choate,  "The  Two  Hague  Conferences." 
A.  P.  Higgins,  "The  Hague  Peace  Conferences." 
T.  J.  Lawrence,  "International  Problems  and  Hague  Con- 
ferences." 

W.  I.  Hull,  "The  Two  Hague  Conferences." 
J.  B.  Scott,  "The  Hague  Peace  Conferences  of  1899  and  1907.' 
F.  W.  Holls,  "The  Peace  Conferences  at  the  Hague." 
Fitzedward  Hall,  "Modern  English." 
Jeremy  Bentham,  "An  Introduction  to  the  Principles  of 

Morals  and  Legislation." 

Peter  Kropotkin,  "Mutual  Aid  a  Factor  in  Evolution." 
Franklin  H.  Giddings,  "Principles  of  Sociology." 
M.  N.  Tod,  "International  Arbitration  Among  the  Greeks." 


178  BOOKS  CONSULTED 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vols.  1,  9  and  10. 
W.  A.  Phillips,  "The  Confederation  of  Europe." 
J.  Jacobs,  "The  Story  of  Geographical  Discovery." 
Cunningham,  "The  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Com- 


merce." 


Higgs,  "The  Physiocrats." 

Robinson  and  Beard,  "The  Development  of  Modern  Europe." 

H.  B.  Gibbins,  "Industry  in  England." 

Gilbert  Slater,  "The  Making  of  Modern  England." 

Henry  Morley,  "Bartholomew  Fair." 

C.  Walford,  "Fairs,  Past  and  Present." 

James  Samuelson,  "Civilization  in  Our  Day." 

Hastings  Rashdall,  "Universities  of   Europe  in  the  Middle 

A  " 

Ages. 

Gabriel  Compayre,  "Abelard  and  the  Origin  and  Early  His- 
tory of  Universities." 

R.  B.  Haldane,  "Universities  and  National  Life." 

J.  T.  Brent,  "Genoa." 

Renan,  "Averroes  et  Averroism." 

Walter  Bagehot,  "Physics  and  Politics." 

Z.  I.  Loutfi,  "La  Politiqm  Sanitaire  Internationale" 

Henry  B.  Russel,  "International  Monetary  Conferences." 

L.  Chatelaine,  "Le  Protection  Ouvriere." 

Logan  G.  McPherson,  "Transportation  in  Europe." 

William  Briggs,  "The  Law  of  Copyright." 

R.  R.  Bowker,  "Copyright,  Its  History  and  Law." 

Jenks  and  Lauck,  "The  Immigration  Problem." 

Henry  Pratt  Fairchild,  "Immigration." 

John  Barrett,  "The  Pan  American  Union." 

M.  A.  T.  Holmes,  "Dictionary  of  Neutral  Languages." 

Sir  John  F.  Davis,  "The  Chinese." 

Sir  John  F.  Davis,  "China  During  the  War  and  Since  the 
Peace." 

Peter  Auber,  "China." 

Sir  George  Staunton,  "Acount  of  Lord  Macartney's  Embassy/' 


BOOKS  CONSULTED  179 

J.  Spencer  Hill,  "The  Indo-Chinese  Opium  Trade." 

Papers  on  Inter-Racial  Problems. 

S.  Wells  Williams,  "A  History  of  China." 

Hertslet,  "China  Treaties." 

Hertslet,  "The  Map  of  Europe  by  Treaties." 

Treaties,  Conventions,  International  Acts,  Protocols  and  Agree- 
ments between  the  U.  S.  and  Other  Powers. 

David  Starr  Jordan  and  Edward  B.  Krehbiel,  "Syllabus  of 
Lectures  on  International  Conciliation." 

Annuaires  de  la  Vie  International  1908-9,  1910-11. 

La  Vie  Internationale. 

Rapport  General  de  I  Exposition  Universelle  de  1889. 

Exposition  Universelle  Internationale  de  1900:  Rapport  General 
Administratif  et  Technique,  Vol.  VI. 

Ibid.,  Pieces  Annexes. 

Reports  World's  Columbian  Exposition. 

Proces-verbaux  de  la  Conference  Sanitaire  Internationale  de 
Rome,  I885-,  de  Paris,  1894;  de  Venise,  1897. 

Transactions  of  2nd  Int.  Sanitary  Cf.  of  the  Amer.  Reps. 

Bulletin  de  t  Office  I.  f  Hygiene  puUique. 

Documents  du  Congres  Postal  de  Paris,  1878. 

Bulletins  of  Pan  American  Union. 

Smithsonian  Institution  Reports. 

Report  World's  Missionary  Conference,  1910. 

Report  of  Immigration  Commission  of  Emigrant  Conditions 
in  Europe. 

Transportation  Routes  and  Systems  of  the  World. 

Reports  Royal  Opium  Commission. 

Chinese  Repository. 

Report  International  Opium  Commission. 

British  Parliament  Papers. 

Congressional  Documents. 

Hansard. 


APPENDIX 


The  purpose  of  the  Appendix  is  to  exhibit  to  English  readers 
the  international  life  of  the  world  as  shown  (1)  in  the  official 
international  conferences  and  (2)  in  private  international  con- 
gresses and  associations. 

The  list  of  official  conferences  includes  only  those  which 
deal  with  matters  of  a  general  and  non-political  character. 
The  first  column  gives  the  date  of  the  first  conference  on  the 
subject,  the  second  column  the  matter  considered,  the  third 
column  the  number  of  states  participating  in  the  conference 
or  adhering  to  the  convention,  the  fourth  column  the  number 
of  conferences  held,  the  fifth  column  the  form  of  permanent 
organization  and  the  sixth  its  headquarters. 

The  English  names  in  the  unofficial  congresses  in  the  second 
list  may  not  in  every  case  be  the  exact  equivalents  of  the  French 
or  German  titles,  but  comparison  has  been  made  with  lists  of 
the  Library  of  Congress,  the  New  York  Public  Library  and  the 
Columbia  University  Library.  The  first  column  gives  the  first 
congress  as  far  as  ascertainable,  the  third  column  the  number 
of  meetings  held  up  to  1914,  the  fourth  column  the  form  of  per- 
manent organization  and  the  fifth  its  headquarters. 

The  lists  have  been  compiled  largely  from  data  furnished  by 
LAnnuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale,  1908-1909,  1910-191 1,  and 
bound  volumes  of  La  Vie  Internationale,  which  are  invaluable 
compendiums  on  the  subject.  It  is  hoped  that  English  readers 
will  hereby  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  development  and  scope 
of  Internationalism. 

ABBREVIATIONS  USED 

Al=Alliance  Cn.=Commission  Per.=Permanent 

As.=Association  Cv.=Convention  Sec.=Secretariate 

Bu.=Bureau  Fed.=Federation  Soc.=Society 

Ce.=Committee  Inst.=Institute  U.=Universal 

Cf.=Conference  Lg.=League  Un.=Union 

Cg.=Congress  Of.=0ffice  Unif.=Uniform 

Cl.=Council  Or,=0rder  Vs.=Against 


APPENDIX 


181 


OFFICIAL  CONFERENCES 


Org'd 

SUBJECT 

No. 
States 

No. 
M'tings 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1815 

African  Slave  Trade      .     . 

16 

5 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1826 

I.  Cf.  of  Panama      .     .     . 

4 

1851 

I.  Sanitary  Cf  

36 

12 

Un. 

Paris 

1863 

U.  Postal  Un  

50 

11 

Bu. 

Berne 

1863 

Sugar  Union 

11 

10 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1864 

Geneva  (Red  Cross)  Cf  .     . 

10 

Ce. 

Geneva 

1864 

I.  Geodedic  As  

21 

16 

Bu. 

Berlin 

1865 

Cape  Spartel  Lighthouse    . 

11 

1 

1865 

Latin  Monetary  Un. 

5 

8 

1865 

U.  Telegraphic  Un.  . 

30 

10 

Bu. 

Berne 

1867 

I.  Monetary  Cf.       ... 

19 

4 

1872 

Scan.  Monetary  Un.      .     . 

3 

1875 

I.  Cf.  on  Wts.  &  Measures  . 

28 

5 

Bu. 

Paris 

1878 

I.  Phylloxera  Cf.      .     .     . 

12 

2 

1878 

Railway  Freight. 

12 

7 

Of. 

Berne 

1880 

I.  Patents 

20 

8 

Bu. 

Berne 

1881 

Suez  Sanitary  Cl.     .     .     . 

15 

Cl. 

Alexandria 

1882 

Policing  North  Sea  .     .     . 

6 

1882 

Protec.  Submarine  Cables  . 

31 

4 

1882 

Railway  Technique  .     .     . 

15 

3 

1884 

I.  Copyright  

33 

5 

Bu. 

Berne 

1885 

I.  Exch.  of  Works  of  Art    . 

9 

1886 

I.Exch.ofPub.Doc's..     . 

31 

1886 

Sale  Alco.  to  Fishermen 

6 

1888 

S.  A.  Cg.  Private  I.  Law    . 

5 

1888 

Pub.  Customs'  Tariffs  .     . 

29 

! 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1888 

I.  Cf.  on  Penal  Law 

5 

1889 

I.  Maritime  Cf  

19 

1889 

Pan-American  Cf  .    .     .     . 

18 

4 

Bu. 

Washington 

1890 

Legal  Protec.  of  Labor  .     . 

13 

3 

1893 

Private  I.  Law    .... 

16 

4 

1898 

Meas.  of  Cargoes     .     .     . 

4 

1 

1899 

First  Peace  Cf  

27 

1 

1899 

Hague  Tribunal  .     . 

41 

Bu. 

Hague 

1899 

Marine  Exploration  .     .     . 

8 

11 

Bu. 

Copenhagen 

1899 

Reg.  Alcohol  in  Africa  .     . 

11 

2 

182 


APPENDIX 


OFFICIAL  CONFERENCES— Continued 


Org'd                    SUBJECT                   ^ 

No.        Per. 
M'tings  Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1899    Classif.  Causes  of  Death    .    33 

2       Bu. 

Paris 

1900    Preser.  African  Wild  Animals   6 

1 

1902    Unif.  Form.  Power.  Drugs      16 

1 

1902    Pan-Amer.  Sanitary  Un.     .     15 

5       Bu. 

Washington 

1  902    Protec.  of  Useful  Birds  ..11 

1 

1902    Suppres.  White  Slavery      .     15 

3 

1903    I.  As.  of  Seismology      .     .     21 

1       Bu. 

Strasburg 

1905    I.  Cf.  on  Maritime  Law     .     24 

4 

1905    I.  Inst.  of  Agriculture   .     .     40 

1       Ce. 

Rome 

1906    Radiotelegraphic  Un.    .     .     27 

2       Un. 

Berne 

1906    Cen  Amer.  Cf  .                         4 

5       Bu. 

Guatemala 

1907    Cen.  Amer.  Ct.  of  Justice  .      5 

1 

San  Jose 

1907    Pan-American  Ry.  .     .     . 

1 

1907    Second  Peace  Cf.     ...     45 

1 

1908    I  Naval  Cf.                           10 

1 

1  908    Cen.  Amer.  Pedagog.  Inst.  .      5 

2 

San  Jose 

1908    I.  Saccharine  Cf.      ...     10 

2 

1908    Reg.  Arms  in  Africa      .     .     13 

1909    World's  Map      ....    22 

Ce. 

London 

1  909    Cen.  Amer.  Monetary  Un.  .      5 

2 

1909    Running  of  Automobiles    .     19 

1909    I.  Opium  Cn.       ...        12 

1910    Commercial  Statistics   .     .     20 

Bu. 

1910    Aerial  Navigation    ...     17 

1911     S.  Amer.  Postal  Un.      .      .     10 

Bu. 

Montevideo 

1911     Fur  Seals  4 

1912    I  Opium  Cf.                .     .    42 

2 

1912    I.  Cf.  of  the  Hour    ...     16 

1 

UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES, 

ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC. 

Org'd            I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST 

No.          Per. 
M'tings     Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1848    I.  Cg.  of  Agriculture       .     .     . 

.13       Cn. 

Paris 

1860    I.  Brewers'  Cg  

5 

1862    I.  Cg.  of  Pomology    .... 

.      4 

1869    I.  As.  of  Hotel  Men  . 

42       Cl. 

Cologne 

APPENDIX 


183 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC -Continued 


Org'd 
1872 

1873 
1873 
1874 
1877 
1878 
1878 
1878 
1880 
1881 
1881 
1883 
1883 
1885 
1885 
1886 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 


I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST 


Per. 
Org'n 


Headqu'rs 


No. 
M' tings 

Cg.  of  Silk  Culture     ....  4 

Cg.  of  Agric.  &  Forestry  ...  2 

Cg.  on  Indus.  Prop 3 

Cg.  for  Unif .  Meas.  of  Textiles    .  3 

Cg.  of  S.  Amer.  Lawyers  ...  1 

Engineering  Cg 5 

Cg.  for  Devel.  of  Transportation  1 

Cg.  of  Commerce  &  Industry      .  7        Cn. 

Cf .  on  Agric.  Meteorology     .     .  1 

Cg.  of  Direc's  Agric.  Sta's.     .     .  3 

Cg.  of  Contractors  of  Pub.  Works  1 

Soc.  of  Electricians      ....  Ce.        Paris 

Cg.  of  Horticulture     ....  6 

Tramway  Cg 18        Ce.        Brussels 

Railway  Cg 8        Cn.        Brussels 

Cg.  of  Glassworkers    ....  1 3        Sec.       Berlin 

Cg.  of  Printers 6        Sec.       Stuttgart 

Cg.  of  Pigeon  Fanciers     ...  2 

Un.  of  Hatters 8        Sec.       Altenburg 

Cg.  of  Marine  Works  ....  2 

Cg.  for  Utiliz.  of  Rivers    ...  1 

Cg.  of  Mines  &  Metallurgy    .     .  6 

Grain  &  Flour  Cg 1 

Cg.  of  Bakers 5 

Cg.  of  Proces.  of  Construction    .  1 

Cg.  of  Agric.  Botany  ....  1 

Un.  of  Tobacco-workers   ...  8        Sec.       Bremen 

Fed.  of  Miners 23        Sec.       Manchester 

Un.  of  Wood-workers  ....  7        Sec.       Berlin 

Un.  of  Elec.  Stations  ....  8        Bu,        Dresden 

Fed.  of  Glovers 6        Sec.       Berlin 

Un.  of  Shoemakers      ....  4        Sec.       Nuremberg 

Un.  of  Forestry  Stations  ...  6 

Cg.  of  Agriculture 1 

Irrigation  Cg 3 

,  Fed.  of  Metal-workers      ...  7        Sec.       Stuttgart 

,  Cg.  of  Ry.  Employees .     .     .     .  10 


184 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1895 
1895 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900    I 
1900    1 

I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST            R 
.  Patent  Cg  

No. 
/1'tings 

1 

3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
8 
3 
3 
12 
2 
1 
1 
7 
2 
3 
8 
3 
8 
5 
3 
8 
15 
6 
5 
11 
2 
1 
1 
7 
7 
1 
3 
1 
1 
2 

Per. 
Org'n 

Sec. 
Sec. 
Sec. 
Sec. 
Ce. 

Bu. 
Ce. 

Sec. 
Sec. 

Cn. 

Ce. 
Ce. 
Ce. 
Cn. 
Ce. 

Headqu'rs 

Berlin 
Manchester 
Hamburg 
Berlin 
Paris 

Frankfort 
Brussels 

Berlin 
Berlin 

Berne 

Hamburg 
Berlin 

Huy 
Leeds 

.  Cg.  of  Naval  Architecture     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Authors      

Insurance  Cg.             .          . 

U  Cg.  of  Bankers     

.  Cg.  of  Journalists  

.  Fed.  of  Potters  

.  Fed.  of  Textile-workers    .     .     . 
Fed  of  Furriers 

.  Fed.  of  Brewery-workers  .     .     . 
.  Un.  of  Press  As's  

.  Cg.  of  Paper  Mfrs  

Textile  Cg. 

.  Fed.  of  Cooks        

.  Cg.  of  Actuaries     

.  Cg.  of  Leather-workers     .     .     . 
Fed  of  Tailors                            . 

.  Fed.  of  Lithographers  .... 
.  Fed.  of  Ship  &  Dock-workers 
.  Cg.  of  Publishers   

.  Cg.  of  Maritime  Fishing  .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Dockers  
.  Fed.  of  Transpor.  Workers    .     . 
.  As  of  Indus.  Prop. 

.  Fed.  of  Commercial  Travelers     . 
.  Cg.  of  Agriculture  

.  As.  Leather-trade  Chemists  .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Moulders     

.  Cg.  of  Screw-threading 
.  Cg.  vs.  Destruc.  of  Birds  .     .     . 
.  Fishery  Cg  
Acetylene  Cg                         . 

.  Cg.  of  Fruits  of  the  Press  .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Grape  Culture  .... 
.  Cg.  of  Sylviculture      .... 
.  Cg.  vs.  Cochylis     

.  Real  Estate  Cg  

APPENDIX 


185 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'n 

1900 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1900 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1905    i 

I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST 
.  Cg.  of  Millers  

No. 
M'tings 

2 
1 
1 
4 
2 
2 
6 
1 
5 
4 
1 
5 

:i 

.3 

Per. 
Org'n 

Ce. 

Bu. 
Sec. 

Ce. 
Ce. 

Bu. 

Sec. 
Fed. 
Ce. 
Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 
Ce. 

Ce. 

Headqu'rs 
Paris 

Ghent 
Hamburg 

Paris 

Brussels 

Hamburg 
Brussels 
Paris 
Zurich 

Paris 

Berlin 
Manchester 

Paris 

.  Cg.  of  Gas  Industry    .     .     .     . 
.  Grocery  Cg. 

.  Un.  of  As's  of  Inventors  .     .     . 
.  Agric.  &  Fishery  Cg  
.  Cg.  on  Rational  Food  for  Cattle  . 
.  Cg.  of  Christian  Textile-workers 
.  Cg.  of  the  Merchant  Marine 
.  Fed.  of  Employees  

.  Fed.  of  Employees  in  Commerce 
.  Textile  Cg. 

.  Cg.  of  Wines,  Spirits,  etc.      .     . 
.  Ramie  Cg  

.  Cg.  of  Agric.  Syndicates  .     .     . 
.  Marine  As  
.  Good  Roads  Cg. 

.  Cg.  for  Protec.  vs.  Hail    .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Hybridization  of  Vine.     . 
.  Cg.  of  Rice  Culture     .... 

.  Cg.  on  Plant  Breeding  &  Hybrid. 
.  Navigation  Cg. 

.2 
12 
2 
3 
6 
6 
4 
1 

2 
1 
3 
2 
9 
1 
1 
1 
9 

.  Cg.  of  Denatured  Alcohol      .     . 
.  Fed.  of  Masons 

Dairv  Cg. 

.  Confed.  of  Musicians  . 
.  Cg.  of  Stonecutters     . 
.  Cg.  of  Quarrymen       .... 
.  Fed.  of  Dyers  &  Scourers  .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Alpine  Gardens      .     .     . 
.  Cg.  on  Running  of  Autos  . 
.  Cg.  of  Painters 

.  Fed.  of  Pavers             .... 

.  Cotton  Cg.             

.  Cf  .  on  Hospital  Construction 
.  Cg  of  Lawyers 

.  Cg.  of  Public  Accountants     .     . 
Hen.  As.  of  Munic.  Engineers,  etc. 

186 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'n           I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST 

No. 
M'tings 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1905    Baltic  &  White  Sea  Cf  

7 

Ce. 

Stockholm 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Colonial  Agronomy     . 

3 

As. 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Aviculture  

5 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Agric.  Mechanics   . 

1 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Chambers  of  Commerce   . 

5 

Ce. 

Brussels 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Chauffeurs  

2 

1905 

.  Fed.  of  Book-binders  .     .     .     . 

4 

Sec. 

Berlin 

1905 

J.  Al.  of  Diamond-cutters   .     .     . 

3 

Sec. 

Antwerp 

1905 

.  Fed.  of  Porcelain-makers  .     .     . 

2 

Sec. 

Charlot'b'g 

1905 

.  Petroleum  Cg  

5 

Cn. 

Karlsruhe 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Aerated  Water  .      .     .     . 

1 

1905 

.  Sugar  &  Distilling  Cg. 

2 

1905 

.  Cement  Cg.            

1 

1905 

.  Cg.  on  Construe.  &  Pub.  Wks.    . 

2 

Cn. 

Brussels 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Line-fishermen  . 

2 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Public  Works    .      .     .     . 

1 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Town  Clerks     .     .     .     . 

3 

1905 

.  Cg.  of  Ceramic-workers    .     .    "'; 

1 

1905 

.  Ry.  Time-table  Cf  

4 

1906 

.  Cf  .  on  Unif  .  Anal.  Stock  foods    . 

1 

1906 

.  Cg.  on  Seed-testing     .     .     .     . 

2 

1906 

.  Cg.  of  Postal  Employees  .     .     . 

1 

1906 

.  Saddlery  As  

3 

Sec. 

Berlin 

1906 

.  Fed.  Post.,  Tel.  &  Teleph.  Wkrs. 

3 

Sec. 

Paris 

1907 

Cg  of  Builders 

4 

1907 

Press  Museum 

Cl. 

Brussels 

1907 

.  Cg.  of  Silk  Printers     .      .      .      . 

1 

1907 

Cg.  of  Net-makers  

1 

1907 

.  Fed.  of  Hairdressers    .     .     .     . 

2 

Sec. 

Berlin 

1907 

.  Cg.  of  Dry  Farming    .     .     .     . 

8 

1907 

World  Cg.  of  Butchers    .     .     .     . 

1 

1907 

.  Fed.  of  Carpenters      .      .     .     . 

1 

Sec. 

Hamburg 

1907 

.  Fed.  of  Factory-workers  .     .      . 

Sec. 

Hanover 

1907 

.  Fed.  of  Wkrs.  in  Pub.  Ser.     .     . 

3 

Sec. 

Berlin 

1907 

Fed.  of  Bakers                  .     .     . 

2 

Sec. 

Hamburg 

1907 

.  Cg.  of  Periodical  Press     .     .     . 

3 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1907 

.  Fed.  of  Per.  Expos.  Corns. 

3 

Cl. 

Brussels 

APPENDIX 


187 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd           I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST             M 

^tings 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1907    I.  Fishery  Cg  

1 

1907     I.  Cotton  Planters'  Cg  

1 

1907    I.  Cg.  of  Ship-owners      .... 

1 

1907    I.  Cg.  of  Postal  Clerks    .... 

1 

1907    I.  Cg.  of  Cotton  Exchanges.     .     . 

2 

1908    I.RoadCg  

3 

Cn. 

Paris 

1908    I.  Cg.  of  Oil-culture  

3 

1908    I.  Cf.  of  Navigation  Co's.    .     .     . 

1 

1  908    I  .  Cf  .  of  Europ.  Telep.  &  Tel.  Adms 

2 

Ce. 

1908    I.  Cg.  on  Refrigeration   .... 

3 

Cl. 

Paris 

1908    I.  Un.  of  Hotel  Employees  .     .     . 

2 

Sec. 

Berlin 

1908    U.  Fed.  of  Soc.  of  Hotel  Men    .     . 

3 

Ce. 

Cologne 

1908    I.  Cg.  of  Ry.  Engrs.  &  Firemen      . 

1 

1909    I.  Fed.  of  Moto-culture  .     .     .     . 

2 

Ce. 

Paris 

1909    I.  Agrogeological  Cf  

2 

Cn. 

1909    I.  Fed.  of  As's  of  Linen  Mfrs.    .     . 

5 

Ce. 

Ghent 

1909    I.  Cost  Cg.  of  Empl.  Printers    .     . 

4 

1910    I.  Cg.  of  Fire-arms  Testing  .     .     . 

1 

Liege 

1910    I.  Cg.  of  Drilling  Engineers       .     . 

1 

1910    I.  Cg.  of  Breeding  &  Feeding    .     . 

1 

1910    I.  Chrysanthemum  Cg  

1 

Paris 

1910    I.RoseCg  

1 

Paris 

1910    I.  Cg.  of  Tropical  Agronomy     .     . 

2 

Bu. 

Paris 

1910    I.  Cg.  of  Agric.  As's  

1 

Cn. 

Brussels 

1910    I.  Fed.  of  Merchant  Tailors.     .     . 

2 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1910    I.  Fishery  Cf  

1 

As. 

Brussels 

1910    I.  Cg.  of  Notaries      

1 

1911     I.  Drilling  As  

1 

Sec. 

Vienna 

1911     I.  Cg.  of  Farm  Women  .... 

3 

1910    I  .  Cg.  of  Indus.  &  Agric.  Protec.  As's 

1 

1910    Pan-Amer.  Commercial  Cf.  .     .     . 

1 

191  1     I.  Fed.  of  Bank  Employees  .     .     . 

2 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1911     I.  Rubber  Cg  

3 

1911     I.  Steel  Cf  

1 

1911     I.DrugCg  

2 

1911     I.  Cg.  of  Chocolate  Mfrs.     .     .     . 

1 

1912    I.  Cg.  of  Mfrs.  of  Paper  Money      . 

1 

188 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.-Continued 


Org'd 


I.  ECONOMIC  INTEREST 


No. 
M 'tings 


Per. 
Org'n 


Headqu'rs 


1912  I.  As.  of  Linen  Exporters     .     .     . 

1912  I.  Cg.  of  Fish  Merchants,  etc.  .     . 

1912  I.  Cg.  of  Cinematograph  Go's   .     . 

1913  I.  Fed.  of  Hardware  Merchants      . 
1913  I.  Cg.  on  Fruit-tree  Growing     .     . 

1913  I.  Forestry  Cg 

1913  I.  Cg.  of  Watchmakers   .... 

1913  I.  Cg.  of  Consulting  Engrs.  .     .     .  1 

1913  I.  Fed.  of  Carvers Sec.       Berlin 

1913  I.  Cg.  of  Ins.  Agents 3 

1913  I.  Cynologic  Fed 3 

1913  I.TaxCf 4 

1913  I.  As.  for  Preven.  of  Smoke       .     .  6 

II.  RECREATIONAL  INTEREST 

1867  I.  Chess  Cg 2 

1878  I.  Cg.  of  Alpine  Clubs    ....  2 

1889  I.  Cg.  of  Physical  Exercise  ...  1 

1892  I.  Skating  Un 10       Ce.        Stockholm 

1892  I.  Fed.  of  Rowing  As's    ....  22  Turin 

1894  I.  Olympic  Ce 15        Ce.        Paris 

1896  I.  Velocipede  Cg 1 

1 897  Bu.  of  Europ.  Gymnas.  Fed's   .     .  6       Cl.        Antwerp 
1897  I.  League  of  Tourist  As's     ...  Ce.        Baarn 
1897  I.  Fencing  Cg 4 

1900  I.  Cyclist  Un 24       Ce.        Paris 

1900  I.  Automobile  Cg 4 

1903  I.  Turners 5 

1904  I.  Cf.  of  Automobile  Clubs  .     .     .  1 

1905  I.  Cg.  of  Prestidigitation      ...  1 

1906  I.  Bull-fighting  Cg 1 

1907  I.  Hunting  Cg 4       Cn. 

1908  I.  Fed.  of  Foot-ball  As's.     ...  2 

1908  I.AutonauticFed 1 

1909  I.  Cf.  of  Gun  Clubs 1 

1910  I.  Gymnastic  Cg 1 

1910  I.SkiiCg 4 


APPENDIX 


189 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

1910 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 


1861 
1867 
1873 
1878 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1891 
1891 
1893 
1898 
1900 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1905 
1905 
1907 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1909 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1911 
1911 


II.  RECREATIONAL  INTEREST 


No. 
M'tings 

I.  Cf.  of  Aero  Clubs 1 

I.  Cg.  of  Athletic  Sports.     ...       1 

I.  Alpine  &  Skii  Cg 1 

I.  Cg.  of  Swimming  As's      ...       1 

I.  Motorcycle  Fed 2 

III.  ARTISTIC  INTEREST 

.ArtCg 6 

.  Cg.  of  Architects 9 

.  Cg.  of  History  of  Art  .     .     .     .  10 

.  Lit.  &  Artistic  As 31 

.  Cg.  of  Photography  ....  5 
.  Cg.  of  Protec.  for  Works  of  Art  .  1 
.  Cg.  of  the  Soc.  of  Writers  .  .  1 

.  Photographic  Un 13 

.  Cg.  of  Numismatics    ....  3 

.  Cg.  of  Music 4 

.  Cg.  of  Public  Art 3 

.  Cg.  of  Theatrical  Art  ....  1 
.  Cg.  of  Arts  &  Sciences  ...  1 
.  Fed.  of  Teaching  of  Design  .  .  4 

.  Soc.  of  Music 5 

.  Cg.  of  Religious  Music     ...       1 

.  Dance  Cg 2 

.  Garden  City  Cg 1 


.  Cg.  of  Gregorian  Chant  .  . 
.  Cg.  of  Theatre  &  Dramat.  Art 
.  Fed.  of  Amat.  Theat.  Soc's  . 
.  Cg.  for  Man.  of  Mountains  . 
.  Un.  of  Dancing  Masters  .  . 
.  Cg.  of  Applied  Photog.  .  . 
.  Cg.  for  Protec.  Landscape  . 
.  Cg.  of  Art  &  History  .  .  . 
.  Cg.  of  Cinematography  . 

.  Townplanning  Cg 

.  City  planning  Cf 

.  Municipal  Cg 


Per. 
Org'n 


Headqu'rs 


Ce.        Paris 


Ce. 


Cl.        Brussels 


Brussels 


Ce. 
Cl. 


Fribourg 
London 


Cl. 


Ce. 


Cirey,  s.  V. 
Altenburg 


190 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

1913 
1913 


III.  ARTISTIC  INTEREST 


No. 
M 'tings 

I.  Cg.  of  Musical  Pedagogy       .     .       1 

I.  Cg.  of  Cities 1 

Women's  I.  Art  Club      .... 

I.  Art  Circle 

I.  Water  Color  Soc 

Associazione  Artistica  Int.    .     .     . 
/.  Modern  Kunst^nng    .... 

IV.  SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST 


Per. 
Org'n 

Sec. 


Headqu'rs 

Brussels 

London 

Paris 

Paris 

Rome 

Amsterdam 


1847 
1853 
1853 
1856 
1857 
1857 
1862 
1867, 

I.  Cg.  of  Economists       .... 
I.  Cg.  for  Unif.  Obser's  at  Sea  .     . 
I.  Cg.  of  Statistics     
I.  Cg.  for  Customs'  Reform.     .     . 
I.  Positivist  Soc.  (reorg.  1906)  .     . 
I.  Cg.  of  Ophthalmology 
I.  As.  for  Prog,  of  Soc.  Sci's      .     . 
I.  Geodedic  As. 

1 
2 
9 

1 

11 
4 
16 

Bu. 
Bu. 

Paris 
Berlin 

1863 

I.  Veterinarian  Cg. 

10 

Cn. 

Budapest 

1864 
1865 

I.  Cg.  of  General  Averages  .  .  . 
I.  Cg.  of  Pharmacy  

1 
11 

1865 

I.  Cg.  of  Astronomy  

7^ 

Leipzig 

1865 
1865 
1867 

I.  Cg.  of  Anth.  &  Prehist.  Arch. 
I.  Paleo-ethnolog.  Cg  
I.  Medical  Cg.                       ... 

14 
1 
17 

Cl. 
Cn. 
Cn. 

Geneva 
Hague 
Hague 

1867 
1871 

I.  Cg.  of  Archaeology  .... 
I.  Geographical  Cg  

5 
10 

1871 
1873 

I.  Meteorological  Cf  
I.  Law  As. 

6 
78 

Ce. 
Cl. 

London 

1873 

Inst.  of  I.  Law  .  ... 

78 

Ce. 

Ghent 

1873 
1873 

I.  Cg.  of  Orientalists  .... 
I.  Meteorological  Ce. 

14 
1? 

1875 
1876 
1876 

I.  Cg.  of  Americanists  .... 
I.  Cg.  of  Homeopathy  .... 
U.  Scientific  Alliance  

17 
12 

Cl. 
Ce. 

Paris 

1876 
1877 
1878 

I.  Cg.  of  Otology  
I.  Cg.  of  Archivists  &  Librarians  . 
I.  Cg.  of  Bibliography  .... 

10 
5 
3 

Ce. 

Brussels 

APPENDIX 


191 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.-Continued 


Org'd           IV.  SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST 

No. 
M'tings 

Per. 
Org'd 

Headqu'rs 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Mental  Medicine   .     . 

.      2 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Demography     . 

.      1 

1878 

.  Geological  Cg  

.    12 

Sec. 

Stockholm 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Commercial  Geog.  .     . 

.      2 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Ethnography    . 

.      2 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Botany  &  Horticul. 

.      3 

Ce. 

Brussels 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Anthropology   .     .     . 

.      4 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Geom.  Experts  .     .     . 

.      1 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Army  Med.  Service 

.      1 

1879 

.  Polar  Commission 

.      4 

1880 

.  Cg.  of  Rhino-laryngology  . 

.      3 

Ce. 

Berlin 

1880 

.  Cg.  of  Laryngology     .      .     . 

.      2 

• 

1880 

.  Geographical  Inst. 

Berne 

1881 

.  Cg.  of  Shorthand  Writers 

.      4 

1881 

.  Electrical  Cg  

7 

1882 

.  Cf  .  on  Electrical  Units     .     . 

.      4 

Ce. 

1882 

.  Cg.  of  Criminal  Anthropol.    . 

.      8 

1883 

.  Cg.  of  Tropical  Medicine 

.      2 

1884 

.  Cg.  of  Ornithology 

.      5 

Ce. 

1885 

.  Cg.  of  Neurology   .... 

3 

1885 

.  Cg.  of  Commercial  Law   . 

.      2 

1885 

.  Inst.  of  Statistics 

14 

Bu. 

Hague 

1885 

.  Cg.  of  Testing  Materials  .     . 

.    10 

As. 

Vienna 

1886 

.  Cg.  of  Hydrology,  etc.      .     . 

.      8 

Bu. 

Paris 

1886 

.  Phonetic  As  

Cl. 

Bourg  la  R. 

1887 

4cademia  pro  Interlingua 

Cl. 

Turin 

1887 

.  Shorthand  Cg. 

11 

1887 

.  Ce.  on  Photo.  Celestial  Map 

.     .5 

Ce. 

Paris 

1887 

.  Astrophotographic  Cg. 

.      1 

1888 

.  Catholic  Sci.  Cg  

.      5 

Ce. 

Rome 

1889 

.  Medico-legal  Cg. 

2 

1889 

.  Aeronautical  Cf  .                . 

7 

1889 

.  Dental  Fed  

8 

Cl. 

Geneva 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Dermatology    .     .     . 

.      7 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Therapeutics     . 

.      1 

1889    Interparliamentary  Union    .     . 

.    18 

Cl. 

Brussels 

1889    I.  Un.  of  Penal  Law  . 

11 

Bu. 

Berlin 

192  APPENDIX 

UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1895 
1895 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 

IV.    SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST 
.  Colonial  Cg. 

3 

Per. 
Org'n 

Ce. 
Ce. 

Cl. 

Ce. 
Ce. 

Bu. 
Ce. 

Cn. 
Bu. 
Cn. 

Bu. 

Sec. 
Cl. 
Bu. 

Headqu'rs 

Paris 

Rome 

Upsala 
Brussels 

Paris 
Geneva 

Paris 
Brussels 

Zurich 
Brussels 
Zurich 
London 
Strasburg 
Potsdam 

London 
Antwerp 

.  Emigration  Cg. 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Physiology  .... 

.      9 

.  Cg.  of  Psychology       .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Physiol.  Psychology    . 
.  Cg.  of  Hypnotism  .... 

.      7 

.      1 
.      2 

.  Cg.  of  Zoology       .... 

9 

.  Folk-lore  Cg  

.      4 

.  Cg.  of  Accounting       .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Chronometry    .     .     . 
.  As.  of  Academies  .... 
.BookCf  

.      2 
.      2 
.      6 

.      1 

.  Commission  on  Clouds     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Gynecology 
.  Cg.  for  Customs'  Legis.,  etc. 
Dan-  American  Med.  Cg.  .     .     . 
.  Cg.  of  History 

.      2 
.      6 
.     5 
.      5 
2 

.  Inst.  of  Sociology 

8 

.  Mathematical  Cg. 
.  Cg.  of  Pub.  &  Admin.  Law    . 
.  Cg.  of  Eclectic  Medicine  .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Philology     .... 

.      5 
.      1 
.      1 
.      1 

.  Cg.  of  Thalassotherapy    .     . 
.  Colonial  Inst  

.      5 
15 

.  Cg.  of  Applied  Chemistry 
.  Cg.  on  Atmosphere 
Concilium  Bibliographicum  .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Bibliog.  &  Documen.  . 
.  Cn.  on  Radiation  .... 

.      8 
.      2 

.      5 
1 

.  Telegraphic  Cn  

.      5 

.  Cn.  on  Sci.  Aerostation    .     . 
.  Cn.  on  Terres.  Magnetism     . 
.  Cf  .  on  Fixed  Stars  .... 
Catalogue  of  Sci.  Literature 
.  Cg.  of  Climatotherapy 
.  Maritime  Ce. 

.      6 
.      5 
.      1 

.      4 
.      4 
3 

.  Ce.  on  Leprosy 

3 

APPENDIX 


193 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 


IV.  SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST          , 

No. 
W'ting! 

Per. 
>    Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

.  Cn.  for  Unif  .  Sugar  Analysis 

7 

Vienna 

.  Cg.  for  Preservation  of  MSS. 

1 

Cn. 

.  Cg.  of  Hist,  of  Diplomacy     .     . 

1 

.  As.  of  Marey  Institute 

Bu. 

Boulogne  s.  S. 

.  Cg.  of  Electrobiology,  etc. 

7 

Cn. 

As.  of  Anatomists           .... 

12 

Paris 

.  As.  of  Exam.  Phys.  of  Ins.  Co's  . 

4 

.  Council  of  Nurses  

3 

Cl. 

London 

.  Cf  .  on  Hybridization  .... 

4 

Ce. 

Paris 

.  As.  for  Explor.  Cent.  Asia     .     . 

Ce. 

Petrograd 

.  Pure  Food  Cg.       

1 

.  Cn.  on  Photometry     .... 

3 

.  Cg.  of  Christian  Archaeology 

1 

.  Cg.  on  Study  of  Basques  .     .     . 

1 

.  Cg.  on  Sci's.  of  Writing    .     .     . 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Physics  

1 

.  Cg.  of  Philosophy  

2 

Cn. 

Heidelberg 

.  Cg.  of  Compar.  Hist  

1 

.  Neo.  Malthusian  Bu.        .      .     . 

4 

Bu. 

Hague 

.  Cg.  of  Popular  Credit  .... 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Colonial  Sociology  .     .     . 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Transferable  Securities 

1 

.  Cg.  for  Gold  &  Silver  Stan.   . 

1 

.  Cg.  of  the  Medical  Press  .     .     . 

8 

As. 

Paris 

.  Cg.  of  Pharmacal  Specialities 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Alcaloidotherapy    .      .     . 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Applied  Mechanics 

2 

.atin-Amer.  Medical  Cg.     .     .     . 

4 

.  As.  of  Botanists 

1 

Ce. 

Harlem 

.  Anti-tuberculosis  As  

9 

Ce. 

Berlin 

.  Inst.  on  Probs.  Mid.  Classes  . 

4 

Ce. 

Brussels 

.  Cg.  of  Historical  Studies  . 

3 

.  Solar  Cn. 

3 

London 

.  Un.  for  Solar  Research     .     .     . 

5 

Ce. 

Manchester 

.  Cg.  of  Experimen.  Psychol.   .     . 

1 

.  As.  of  Mechanotherapeuts 

Bu. 

Antwerp 

.  Cg.  of  Army  Surgeons 

1 

194 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 
1904 

1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 


IV.  SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST 

Cg.  of  Arts  &  Sciences 
Inst.  of  Social  Bibliog. 
Cg.  for  Reprod.  of  MSS.  . 


No. 

M'tings 

1 
1 


Per. 
Org'n 

Ce. 


Surgical  Soc 4       Ce. 


Headqu'rs 

Berlin 
Brussels 


Cg.  on  Ankylosis 1 

Economic  Cf 1 

Soc.  of  Physical  Medicine      .     .  Ce.        Paris 

Cg.  of  Physiotherapy  ....  4  Cn.        Paris 

Fed.  Cg.  of  Anatomists    ...  2  Ce.        Paris 

As.  of  Lawyers 1  Ce.        Brussels 

I.  Cg.  on  World  Econ.  Expansion  .  1 

U.  Cg.  of  Esperanto 9  Ce.        Paris 

.  Fed.  to  Extend  French  Cul.  &  Lang.  3  Bu.       Brussels 

.  Cg.  of  Radiology 2 

.  Cg.  of  Radiol.  &  Electricity  .     .  2  Cn.        Brussels 

.  Glacial  Cg 1 

.  Aeronautic  Fed 9  Bu.        Paris 

.  Inst.  on  Mental  Diseases,  etc.     .  3  Ce.        Zurich 

.  As.  for  Study  of  Cancer   ...  4  Cn.       Berlin 

.  Cg.  of  Dietetic  Hygiene    ...  2 

.  Economic  Un 7 

Lsperantist  Med.  As Aix-la-C. 

.  Electrotechnical  Cn 4  Cn.        London 

.  Sci.  Esperantist  As Bu.        Paris 

.  As.  of  Esperan.  Jurists     ...  6  Paris 

.  Cg.  of  Photo  Documen.    ...  1 

.  Philatelist  Cg 1  Milan 

.  Polar  Inst Uccle 

.  Cf .  on  Sleeping  Sickness  ...  2 

.  Somatological  As 4  Bu.        Antwerp 

.  As.  of  Medical  Museums  ...  Ce.        Montreal 

.  Cg.  of  Soc.  &  Econom.  Sci's  .     .  1 

.  Inst.  of  Esperanto       ....  Geneva 

.  Soc.  of  Esperan.  Free  Thinkers  .  Sens 

.  Soc.  of  Roman  Dialectology  .     .  Ce.        Brussels 

.  Cg.  of  Stenography     ....  2 

.  Cn.  on  (Meteor.)  World  System .  2  Upsala 


APPENDIX 


195 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 


IV.  SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST          ^ 

No. 
1'tings 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

.  Inst.  of  Tech.  Bibliography   .     . 

Berlin 

.  Soc.  of  Tropical  Medicine      .     . 

1 

Ce. 

Cambridge 

.PancelticCg  

6 

Ce. 

Brussels 

.  Free  Trade  Cg  

2 

.  Un.  of  Esperan.  Vegetarians  .     . 

Hamburg 

.  As.  of  Esperan.  Teachers       .     . 

Ce. 

Lille 

U.  Esperantist  As  

2 

Ce. 

Geneva 

.  Sci.  Entente  for  Aux.  Lang.  .     . 

Ce. 

Brussels 

.  Positivist  Cg  

1 

.  Polar  Cn  

3 

Bu. 

Brussels 

.  Cv.  of  Heraldry     

Paris 

.  American  Sci.  Cg  

3 

.  Cg.  of  Applied  Electricity      .     . 

2 

.  Cg.  of  Catalane  Hist  

1 

.  Cg.  on  Epilepsy     

4 

Ce. 

Amsterdam 

irain  Commission     

2 

Berlin 

.  Inst.  for  Diffus.  of  Soc.  Exper.    . 

Ce. 

Paris 

.  As.  of  Esperan.  Bankers  .     .     . 

Dresden 

Jn.  for  an  I.  Language  .... 

Ce. 

Solothurn 

.  Cg.  of  Ophthalmology 

1 

.  Bu.  for  Educ.  Documen.  .     .     . 

1 

Ostende 

ntermediarc  Sociologique 

Brussels 

.  Pediatric  As  

1 

Ce. 

Paris 

.  Cg.  of  Urinology    

2 

.  Pharmaceutical  Fed  

Cn. 

Hague 

.  Juridical  Ce.  of  Aviation  .     .     . 

2 

.  Juridical  Cg.  of  Aviation  .     .     . 

1 

.  Cg.  of  Experimen.  Psychology    . 

2 

Paris 

Central  Meteoric  Bu  

Ce. 

Antwerp 

.  Inst.  of  Ethnography  .... 

Bu. 

Paris 

.  Cg.  of  Entomologists  .... 

2 

Ce. 

.  Cg.  of  Administrative  Sci's    .     . 

2 

Cn. 

Brussels 

SlavCg  

1 

Un.ofI.As's  

1 

Brussels 

Medizin-Literarische  Zentralstelle    . 

Berlin 

I.  Cg.  of  Museum  Directors      .     . 

1 

Cg.  I.  des  Sages  femmes  .... 

1 

196 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

1911 

IV.  SCIENTIFIC  INTEREST 
.  Cg.  of  Pathology    

No. 
M'tings 

1 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1911 

.  Cg.  on  Aerial  Law  . 

2 

1911 
1911 

.  Lg.  for  Rights  of  Peoples       .     . 
Jniversal  Races  Cg.  . 

1 

Cl. 

Paris 

1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 

.  As.  of  Compar.  Polit.  Econ.  .     . 
J.  Un.  of  Esperan.  Litterateurs 
.  Lg.  of  Esperan.  Postal  Empl's    . 
.  As.  for  Creating  an  I.  Lang.  .     . 
.  Monist  Cg.       

1 
1 

Sec. 
Ce. 

Berlin 
Dresden 
Breslau 
Berne 

1911 
1911 

.  Soc.  for  Psychical  Research  .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Pedology 

Bu. 
Ce. 

Paris 
Brussels 

1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 

.  Inst.  of  Embryology    .... 
.  Inst.  of  Plasmology     .... 
.  Entomological  As  
.  As.  of  Accounting  .... 

2 
3 

Ce. 
Ce. 

Cl. 

Brussels 
Frankfort 
Brussels 

1911 
1911 
1912 
1912 
1913 

.  As.  of  Chemical  Soc's       .     .     . 
.  As.  of  Jurid.  &  Econom.  Philos. 
.  Cg.  of  Dermatology    .... 
.  Cg.  of  Compar.  Pathology     .     . 
.  Orthopedic  Cg. 

3 
2 
1 
1 
1 

Cl. 

Gross-Bothen 

1913 

Jf.  Central  des  Nationalttes       .     . 
.  Cg.  of  Neurology  &  Psychiatry  . 
Isperan.  Theosophical  Lg.  .     .     . 
.  Soc.  of  Friends  of  Esperan.    . 
.  Soc.  of  Esperan.  Stenographers  . 
.  Lg.  of  Esperan.  Typographers    . 
.  As.  of  Esperan.  Pharmacists  .     . 
.  As.  of  Esperan.  Ry.  Empl's   .      . 
.  Un.  of  Esperan.  Philatelists  . 
.  Soc.  of  the  Apochrypha    . 

1 
3 

Sec. 

Sec. 
Cl. 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 

Paris 
Antwerp 

Paris 
London 

V.  EDUCATIONAL  INTEREST 

1876  I.  Cg.  of  Education   .... 

1876  I.  Cg.  of  Teachers  of  Blind  .     . 

1878  Free  I.  Cg.  of  Education      .     . 

1880  I.  Pedagogical  Cg 

1886  I.  Cg.  on  Technical  Ed.  . 


4 

11 

4 

2 

10 


Ce.        Paris 


APPENDIX 


197 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 

Org'd       V.  EDUCATIONAL  INTEREST 

1887  I.  Cg.  of  School  Gymnastics 

1888  I.  Cg.  of  School  Colonies 

1889  .  Cg.  of  Primary  Ed 3 

1 889      .  Cg.  of  Secondary  Ed.  .     .     . 

1889      .  Cg.  of  Higher  &  Sec.  Ed.       . 
1889      .  Cg.  of  Private  Pop.  Instruc.  . 

1899  .  Cg.  of  Horticultural  Ed.  .     . 

1900  .  Cg.  of  Agricul.  Ed 

1900      .  Cg.  of  Social  Ed 

1 900      .  Cg.  of  Teaching  of  Social  Sci's 
1900      .  Cg.  of  Educational  Press  .     . 

1900  Per.  I.  Ce.  on  Physical  Ed.  .     . 
1 900      .  Cg.  of  Alumni  of  Commer.  Scls. 

1 900  .  Cg.  of  Profs,  of  Living  Langs. 

1901  .  Soc.  for  Devel.  Commer.  Ed. 
1 903      .  Soc.  for  Exch.  of  Chil.  &  Y.P. 

1 903  .  Cg.  on  School  Hygiene     .     . 

1904  .  As.  for  Comple.  Med.  Ed.     . 

1 905  .  Cg.  on  Family  Education 

1905  .  Bu.  of  Teachers' Fed's      .     . 

1906  .  Cg.  of  Popular  Ed 4 

1908      .  Cg.  of  School  Adminis.     .     .     . 

1908     .  Moral  Ed.  Cg 

1908  I.  Cn.  on  Math.  Instruction      .      . 

1908  I.  As.  on  Study  of  Quaternions  . 

1909  .  Ce.  for  Comple.  Med.  Ed.      .     . 

1910  .  Cath.  &  Pedagogical  Fed.      .     . 
1910      .  Cf.  of  Popular  Universities    .      . 
1910      .  Cg.  of  Higher  Tech.  Ed.  .     .     . 

1910  .  As.  of  Med.  Inspectors  of  Schools 

1911  .  Inst.  of  Physical  Ed 

1911      .  Cg.  for  Christian  Ed 

VI.  RELIGIOUS  INTEREST 

1 846  Evangelical  Alliance 

1850  World's  Missionary  Cf 

1855  U.  Al.  of  Chris.  Young  People  .     . 


No. 
'tings 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

2 

2 

3 

Ce. 

5 

Sec. 

Brussels 

3 

! 

Cn. 

5 

Ce. 

2 

2 

Bu. 

Paris 

5 

Ce. 

Trieste 

Cl. 

Paris 

4 

Ce. 

Ce. 

Paris 

3 

Cn. 

Brussels 

4 

Ce. 

4 

Bu. 

Brussels 

3 

Of. 

Fribourg 

2 

Cn. 

London 

7 

Ce. 

Geneva 

Cl. 

Urbana 

3 

Ce. 

Berlin 

1 

Sec. 

Brussels 

1 

Sec. 

Brussels 

1 

Bu. 

Paris 

2 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1 

12 

Ce. 

London 

Ce. 

Edinburgh 

18 

Ce. 

Geneva 

198 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

VI.  RELIGIOUS  INTEREST          j 

No. 

vl'tings 

Per. 
Org'd 

Headqu'rs 

1860 

Alliance  Israelite  U.  

Ce. 

Paris 

1865 

Salvation  Army    

London 

1872 

I.  Un.  of  Old  Catholics  .... 

9 

Ce. 

Bonn 

1875 

Pan  Presbyterian  Council    .     »     . 

1875 

Theosophical  Soc  

4 

Cl. 

Madras 

1880 

I.  Cg.  of  Free  Thinkers  .... 

19 

Cl. 

Brussels 

1881 

Eucharistic  Cg  

21 

Ce. 

Paris 

1886 

World's  Sunday  School  As.  .     .     . 

7 

Ce. 

Chicago 

1889 

I.  Cg.  of  Spiritism     

5 

Bu. 

Liege 

1892 

Ecumenical  Methodist  Cf  .   .     .     . 

1893 

World's  Parliament  of  Rel's      .     . 

1 

1895 

U.  Fed.  of  Christian  Students   .     . 

5 

Ce. 

New  York 

1895 

World  Wide  Christian  Endeavor    . 

3 

Trus. 

Boston 

1896 

I.  Un.  of  Ethical  Soc's    .     .     .     . 

3 

Ce. 

London 

1897 

I.  Zionist  Orgn  

10 

Ce. 

Berlin 

1897 

I.  Cg.  of  Religious  Sci's  .... 

1 

1898 

World's  Young  Worn.  Chris.  As's.  . 

6 

Ce. 

London 

1899 

Congregational  World's  Cl.  .     .     . 

2 

1900 

I.  Cg.  of  Catholic  Students  .     .     . 

2 

1900 

I.  Cl.  of  Unitarians,  etc  

6 

Ce. 

Boston 

1900 

I.  Cg.  of  the  Hist,  of  Rel.     .     .     . 

4 

Cn. 

Leyden 

1902 

I.  Cg.  of  Mary     

6 

1904 

Fed.  Europ.  See's  of  Theos,  Soc.     . 

4 

Cl. 

1905 

Baptist  World  Alliance  .... 

2 

Ce. 

London 

1908 

I.  Or.  for  Eth.  &  Moral  Culture     . 

Bu. 

Zurich 

1908 

Indep.  Theosophical  Lg  

2 

Cl. 

Benares 

1910 

Swedenborg  Cg  

1 

Ce. 

London 

1910 

Esperantist  Cath.  Un  

4 

Brussels 

1911 

I.  Mission  Study  Cl  

3 

Ce. 

Amsterdam 

1911 

Christian  Science       

1 

Gen.  Ecumen.  Cf.  Luth.  Ch.     .     . 

14 

I.  Catholic  Institute  

Cl. 

Rome 

VII.  SOCIAL  INTEREST 

1839    Anti-Slav.  &  Abor.  Protec.  Soc.     .  5 

1843    U.  Peace  Cg 28 

1846    I.  Prison  Cg 10 


Ce. 
Bu. 


London 
Berne 


APPENDIX 


199 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.-Continued 


Org'd               VII.  SOCIAL  INTEREST          j 

& 

Per. 
Org'n 

Headqu'rs 

1852    Indep.  Or.  of  Good  Templars    .     . 

Glasgow 

1856 

.  Cg.  of  Charities     

4 

1860 

.  Cg.  of  Soc's  for  Protec.  Animals  . 

14 

1863 

.  Ce.  of  the  Red  Cross  .... 

9 

Ce. 

Geneva 

1864 

.  Workingmen's  As  

9 

1867 

.  Lg.  of  Peace  and  Liberty       .     . 

Ce. 

Berne 

1875 

cottish  Rite  Masons      .... 

3 

1875 

.  Fed.  for  Abol.  Reg.  Prostitution  . 

11 

Cn. 

Geneva 

1876 

.  Cg.  of  Hygiene  &  Demography    . 

14 

Cn. 

1876 

.  Fed.  of  Cremation  Soc's  .     .     . 

5 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1876 

.  Cg.  on  Sunday  Observance    .     . 

14 

Ce. 

Geneva 

1877 

.  Un.  of  Friends  of  Young  Girl 

7 

Bu. 

Neuchatel 

1877 

.  Fed.  of  the  Blue  Cross      .     .     . 

7 

Ce. 

Geneva 

1878 

.  Cg.  on  Ed.  of  the  Blind    .     .     . 

7 

1878 

.  Cg.  on  Ed.  of  Deaf-mutes      .     . 

5 

1878 

.  Cg.  of  Provident  Institutions 

2 

1880 

.  Anti-  vaccination  Cg  

7 

1883 

World's  Chris.  Temp.  Un.    . 

8 

Ce. 

Evanston 

1883 

.  Cg.  for  Wei.  &  Protec.  of  Chil.     . 

8 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1885 

.  Cg.  on  Alcoholism       .... 

14 

1887 

.  Or.  King's  Daughters  &  Sons 

1888 

.  Council  of  Women      .... 

6 

Ce. 

Berlin 

1889 

.  Jurid.  Cg.  of  Coop.  Soc's 

3 

1889 

.  Housing  Cg. 

10 

Ce. 

Brussels 

1889 

.  Soc.  for  Study  of  Ques.  Charity  . 

Bu. 

Paris 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Pub.  &  Private  Charity    . 

6 

Ce. 

Paris 

1889 

.  Lifesaving  Cg  

6 

1889 

.  Cg.  on  Indus.  Ace's  &  Soc.  Ins.  . 

9 

Ce. 

Paris 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Women's  Work      .     .     . 

2 

1889 

.  Socialist  Labor  Cg  

9 

Bu. 

Brussels 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Popular  Clubs  .... 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Labor  Contract      .     .     . 

1889 

.  Cg.  on  Price  of  Food  .... 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Aid  in  Time  of  War    . 

1889 

.  Cg.  of  Agric.  &  Soc.  Reform 

1890    Un.  I  des  Patronages      .     .     .     . 

5 

Cn. 

Brussels 

1891     I.  Ce.  of  Firemen. 

13 

Cl. 

Amsterdam, 

200 


APPENDIX 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 

1892 
1893 

1893 
1894 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1904 
1904 


VII.  SOCIAL  INTEREST 


M' 


No.          Per,          u    j     . 
'tings      Org'n         Head(^urs 

Co-operative  Alliance       ...  9        Ce.        London 

Cg.  vs.  Immoral  Lit 1        Bu.       Geneva 

Temperance  Cg 1 

Masonic  Cg 5        Bu. 

nternationalis  Concordia      .     .     .  Ce.        Paris 

.  Cg.  of  Aid  to  Injured  Cyclists     .  1 

.  Cg.  of  Hygiene  on  Ry's.,  etc.      .  2 

Nobel  Foundation Stockholm 

Women's  U.  Al.  for  Peace  by  Ed.  .  Paris 

Round  About  Club London 

I.  Cath.  As.  for  Protec.  of  Girls      .  6       Ce.        Fribourg 

I.  Cg.  for  Prog,  in  Mine  Manag.     .  1 

I.  As.  for  Labor  Legislation       .     .11        Bu.        Basle 

CordaFratres 9        Ce.        Ithaca 

Kosmos Amsterdam 

I.  Cg.  of  Lifesaving  at  Sea   .     .     „  3 

I.  Soc.  for  San.  &  Moral  Prophyl.  .  2        Ce.        Brussels 

Cg.  of  Cond.  &  Rights  of  Women  1 

Vegetarian  Cg 4        Un.        Brussels 

Profit-sharing  Cg 5        Fed. 

Cg.  Coop.  Soc's  of  Consumption  2 

Cg.  of  Aid  to  Working  Girls  .     .  1 

Cg.  of  Aid  to  Discharged  Pris.    .  1 

Cg.  Coop.  Soc's  of  Production    .  1 

Anti-tobacco  Cg 2 

Cg.  of  Secur.  vs.  Ac's  by  Steam  .  2 

As.  for  Rep.  White  Slavery    .     .  6       Bu.       London 

Cf.  of  Syndicalists       ....  8        Sec.       Berlin 

Woman  Suffrage  Al 7        Ce.        Rotterdam 

Cg.  on  Care  of  Insane      ...  6 

Museum  of  Peace  &  War.     .     .  Lucerne 

Anti-vivisection  Cg 2        Cl.         Washington 

Fire  Prevention  Cg 2 

Institute  of  Peace Monaco 

Cg.  I  des  Oeuvres  du  Coin  de  terre  3  Brussels 

.  Un.  of  Abstin.  Ry.  Empl's     .     .  4        Sec.       Utrecht 

.  Cg.  for  Sanitary  Dwellings    .     .  4        Cn.        Paris 


APPENDIX 


201 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 


Org'd 
1904 

1904 
1904 
1905 
1905 

VII.  SOCIAL  INTEREST             j 

I.  Med.  As.  for  Suppres.  of  War     . 
I.  Cg.  for  Reg.  of  Jewish  Emig. 
Carnegie  Institute     
International  Conciliation    . 
I.  Esperan.  Peace  Soc. 

No. 

/1'tings 

1 

Per, 
i    Org'n 

Headqu'rs 
Paris 

Washington 
Paris 
Neuillys  S 

1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1%6 

Indep.  Or.  of  Good  Templars    .     . 
I.  Cf.  on  the  Blind     
I.  Med.  Cg.  on  Indus.  Accidents     . 
I.  As.  for  Race  Hygiene  .... 
I.  Lg.  vs.  Abuse  of  Alcohol  . 
I.  Cn.  to  Study  Occupat.  Diseases 
I.  Anti-Masonic  Cg  
lyiczzofdntibtind 

2 

4 

1 

1 
2 
1 
? 

Ce. 
Cl. 
Ce. 

Berne 

Munich 
Berlin 
Milan 

Wiesbaden 

1906 
1907 
1907 

I.  Confed.  of  Agric.  Coop.  Soc's 
As.  of  Cosmopolitan  Clubs  .     .     . 
I.  Temperance  Bu  

3 
5 

Ce. 
Cn. 

Milwaukee 
Lausanne 

1907 
1907 

I.  Un.  for  Protec.  of  Children    . 
U.  White  Cross  Soc  

Bu. 
Ce. 

Brussels 
Geneva 

1907 
1907 
1907 

I.  Cf.  of  Socialist  Women     .     .     . 
I.  Cf.  of  Socialist  Journalists     .     . 
I.  Anarchist  Cg  

2 

4 
1 

1907 
1Q08 

Lg.  of  American  Students    . 
I.  Cg.  vs.  Duelling 

3 

? 

Bu. 
Cl. 

Budapest 

1908 
1908 
1908 
1908 
1908 
1908 
1909 
1909 
1W 

Wdi-Mrtinigung  Kosmopolit      .     . 
I.  Cg.  vs.  Indecent  Pictures.     .     . 
I.  Child  Welfare  Cg  
Perm.  I.  Ce.  on  Social  Ins.  .     .     . 
I.  Food  Cg.  (White  Cross  Soc.)      . 
I.  Cg.  of  Consumers'  Leagues    .     . 
I.  Cath.  Lg.  vs.  Alcohol  .... 
Soc.  I.  des  Intellectuels  .... 
I  Prohibitionist  Fed. 

1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 

Ce. 

Sec. 
Bu. 

Ce. 

Leipzig 

Paris 
Geneva 
Fribourg 
Maestricht 
Catane 
London 

1909 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

/.  V.  fur  Wirtschaftphilosophie 
Gen.  Sec.  of  Abstinent  Socialists     . 
Pro  Genlilezza       
I.  Humane  Cf  
World  Fed.  of  Pacifist  Y.  P. 

2 
2 

1 

Ce. 

Sec. 
Bu. 

Berlin 
Berlin 
Rome 

Milan 

202 


APPENDIX 


Bu. 
Ce. 


Sec. 
Ce. 
Ce. 
Ce. 


Ce.        Paris 


Brussels 

Paris 

Washington 

Boston 

Brussels 

Munich 

Sec.       Utrecht 

Ce. 


UNOFFICIAL  CONGRESSES,  ASSOCIATIONS,  ETC.— Continued 
Org'd  VII.  SOCIAL  INTEREST 

1910  I.  Cg.  of  Mining  Prop.,  Hyg.,  etc.  .      3 

1910  I.  Cg.  vs.  Street  Noises  .     ...      2 

1910  I.  Homework  Cg 2 

1910  I.  As.  on  Unemployment      ...      3 

1910  Carnegie  Endowment  for  I.  Peace  . 

1910  World's  Peace  Foundation  .     .     . 

1911  I.  Pacifist  Catholic  Lg 

1911  Die  Brucke 

1911  I.  Al.  of  Men  for  Worn.  Suffrage     .       2 

191 1  I.  Fed.  Protec.  Native  Races  vs.  Al. 

1911  I.  Cg.  of  Cent.  Amer.  Students.     .       1 

1911  I.  Juvenile  Courts  Cg 1 

191 1  I.  Soc.  for  Protec.  Sponge  Fisher.  . 

1911  I.  As.  for  Destruction  of  Rats   .     . 

1911  I.  As.  for  Protec.  Motherhood  .     . 

1911  U.  Cg.  of  Mussulmans    .... 

1912  As.  for  I.  Interchange  of  Students  . 
1912  .  Feminist  Cg.  of  Brussels  .     .     . 

1912      .  Cg.  on  the  Negro 

1912  .  Tech.  Cg.  for  Preven.  Indus.  Ac. 

1912      .  Eugenics  Cg 

1912  .  Cf.  on  Public  Baths    .... 

1913  Cg.  I.  "Pour  Mieux  se  connattre' 
1913      .  Cg.  vs.  Adulteration,  etc. .     .     . 

Cg.  of  the  Deaf  &  Dumb       .     .      3 

Purity  Cg 8 

Theosophical  Peace  Cg.    ...       1 
Bu.  of  Abstinent  Students     .     . 
J.  As.  of  Esperan.  Good  Templars 
.  Un.  of  Abstaining  Teachers  . 
.  Fed.  of  Abstinent  Physicians 
.  Ce.  of  Abstinent  Priests   .     .     . 

Die  Weltwarte 

Internacia  Ligo 

WeltWerein   . 


Paris 
Canea 
Copenhagen 
Berlin 

London 


Sec.  Zurich 
Worms 
London 

Sec.       Carlsbad 
Sec.       Cologne 
Leipzig 
Zurich 
Munich 


Ce. 


INDEX 


Absolutism,  163 

Accident,  Industrial,  88 

Administration,  Int.,  47 

Aerial  navigation,  55 

Africa,  wild  animais,  5 1 ;  alcohol, 
59,  171;  slavery,  59,  171;  arms 
59,  171 ;  Olympic  games,  78;  im- 
migration, 120. 

Agriculture,  37,  38,  58,  77. 

Int.  Institute  of,  45,  58 

Alfred  the  Great,  32 

Alien,  31,  123 

Alliance  Francaise,  113 

Alliance  Israelite  Universelle,  83 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  77 

American  Scandinavian  Founda- 
tion, 108 

Amherst,  Lord,  132 

Amphyctionic  Council,  1 8 

Andersen,  H.  C.,  98 

Anglo-Chinese  Friendship  Bureau, 
109 

Antwerp,  20 

Arbitration,  64 

Archaeology,  38 

Argentina,  118,  1 20 

"Arrow  War,"  141 

Artistic  interest,  79 

Arts,  38,  41,79 

Arts  and  Sciences,  Int.  Cg.  of,  41 

Association  franco-russe,  103 

Auber,  Peter,  134 

Australia,  78,  120,  161 

Austria,  Congress  of  Vienna,  23; 
Holy  Alliance,  24;  Troppau,  25; 
1st  World's  Fair,  37;  railways, 
55;  Crimean  War,  61;  Olympic 
games,  78;  exchange  professors, 
104;  emigration,  120;  opium, 
151,  154,  156 

Automobile,  56 

Auxiliary  language,  1 1 3 

Backward  nation,  16,  29,  171,  174 

Bagehot,  Walter,  43 


Balance  of  power,  1 9 
Baptist  World  Alliance,  83 
Belgium,  1st  World's  Fair,  37;  Tele. 

Cf.  54;  Pub.  Customs'  Tariffs, 

57;    commercial    statistics,    58; 

Sugar  Union,   58;   slavery,   59; 

Olympic  games,  78. 
Bentham,  Jeremy,  1 1 
Berlin,  Cf .  of,  59 
Berlin,  University  of,  103 
"Birds  of  Passage,"  125,  173 
Birds,  protection  of,  52 
Blaine,  James  G.,  68 
Blind,  93 

Blue  Cross  Society,  94 
Bolivar,  26,  67 
Botany,  8 
Brazil,  49,  120 
Brent,  Bishop,  148 
British  German  Friendship  Society 

109 

Brussels'  Declaration,  63 
Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  121 
Cable  companies,  54 
Cable,  submarine,  28,  29,  53,  54, 

170 

California,  University  of,  103 
Cambridge,  University  of,  33 
Canada,  78,  119,  161 
Cancer,  92 
Canning,  25,  169 
Cape  Spartel  lighthouse,  56,  166 
Carnegie,  Andrew,  69,  111 
Carnegie  Endowment  for  Int. 

Peace,  111 

Carnegie  Institution,  1 1 1 
Catholic  Church,  19,82,99 
Causes  of  death,  50 
Central  American  Union,  50,  53, 

81,  167 

Chambers  of  Commerce,  77 
Charity  and  relief,  92 
Child  labor,  89 


204 


INDEX 


China,  Peace  Cf.,  63;  Boxer  in- 
demnity, 101;  Friendship  Bu., 
109;  prohibits  opium,  130;  ex- 
clusion, 130;  Opium  War,  137; 
Treaty  of  Nanking,  138;  "Arrow 
War,"  141;  Treaty  of  Tientsin, 
143;  prohibitory  edict,  147; 
Opium  Commission,  148-151; 
"Ten  Year  Agreement,"  150, 
156;  Opium  Cf.,  154 

ChooTsun,  137 

Christian  Endeavor  Society,  85 

Christian  Missions,  28,  85 

Christian  Science,  83 

Christian  Student  Federation,  103 

City  planning,  80 

Cocaine,  154 

Code  of  signals,  57 

Colonial  Institute,  Int.,  89 

Colonies,  20,  41,  89,  119 

Columbia  University,  103 

Commerce,  19-21,  27,  38,  57 

Commercial  statistics,  58 

Compayre,  Gilbert,  99 

Concurrent  nationalism,  1 8 

Conferences,  official,  how  convened, 
45;  procedure,  45;  classification, 
46;  Sanitary  Cf.,  47;  weights  and 
measures,  48;  prime  meridian,  49; 
monetary,  49;  pharmacopoeia, 
50;  causes  of  death,  50;  Geodedic 
Assn.,  50;  world's  map,  50;  Uni- 
versal Postal  Union,  53;  hydro- 
graphic  com.,  51 ;  seismology,  51 ; 
sealing,  52;  labor  legislation,  52; 
telegraph,  53;  submarine  cable, 
54;  wireless  tel.,  55;  aerial  navi- 
gation, 55;  railways,  55;  auto- 
mobile, 56;  Marine  Cf.  57;  Exch. 
Public  Doc's.,  57;  Pub.  Customs' 
Tariffs,  57;  commercial  statistics 
58;  Institute  of  Agri.,  58;  Sugar 
Union,  58;  slav3ery  59;  arms  and 
alcohol  in  Africa,  59;  obscene 
literature,  59;  opium,  59;  white 
slavery,  59;  War,  60;  Geneva 
Convention,  61 ;  Peace  Cf's.,  63- 


65;  Naval  Cf.,  66;  conflict  of 
laws,  66;  maritime  law,  66;  in- 
dustrial and  artistic  property, 
66 

Conflict  of  laws,  66 

Congregational  World  Council,  83 

Congresses,  unofficial,  number,  75; 
economic,  77;  recreation,  78; 
artistic,  79;  scientific,  80;  educa- 
tional, 81 ;  religious,  82;  social,  87 

Conservation,  51 

Constantinople,  20,  47 

Consumers'  League,  89 

Cooperative  Alliance,  Int.,  88 

Copyright,  66 

Cor  da  Fratres,  101 

Correspondence  clubs,  106 

Correspondence  schools,  1 08 

Cosmopolitan  Club,  102,  107 

Cosmopolitanism,  14,  26,  120 

Coubertin,  Baron,  78 

Crime,  37,  96 

Crimean  War,  45,  61 

Crusades,  18,  20 

Danube,  18 

Davis,  Sir  John,  140 

Deaf-mutes,  93 

Denmark,  37,  49,  78 

DieBriicke,  107 

Die  Weltwarte,  107 

Diplomacy,  secret,  44 

Discussion,  43,  64,  169 

Dunant,  Henri,  61 

Dutch  trade,  21,21 

Earthquakes,  51 

East  India  Co.,  132,  134 

Economic  interest,  77 

Economics,  15,  21,  38 

Ecumenical  councils,  1 8 

Education,  38,  81 

Educational  interest,  81 

Electrical  units,  81 

Elgin,  Lord,  141,  143 

Emigrant,  119 

Emigration,  119 

Engineering,  78 


INDEX 


205 


England,  colonies,  20;  navigation 
laws,  21 ;  slavery,  23;  Cong,  of 
Vienna,  23;  Holy  Alliance,  24; 
1st  World's  Fair,  36;  world's 
map,  50;  sealing,  52;  code  of 
signals,  57;  Sugar  Union,  58; 
Crimean  War,  61 ;  Naval  Cf.,  66; 
Olympic  games,  78;  correspond- 
ence clubs,  107;  friendship  socie- 
ties, 109;  opium  traffic,  133;  de- 
mands on  China,  141;  agitation 
against  opium,  1 45 ;  Opium  Com., 
148-151 ;  "Ten  Year  Agreement," 
150,  156;  Opium  Cf.,  154;  gives 
up  opium  trade  with  China,  156 

English  language,  1 1 4 

English  Speaker's  Link,  1 07 

Epilepsy,  92 

Equality  of  status,  160 

Esperanto,  115 

Eucharistic  Cg.,  82 

Evangelical  Alliance,  84 

Evolution,  29 

Exchange  of  public  documents,  57 

Exchange  professors,  100,  103 

Exploration,  27,  50,  51,  167,  170 

Expositions,  Int.,  78 

Fairs,  early,  31-34 

Federation,  world,  117,  1 72 

Feminism,  90 

Feudalism,  19,  61 

Fisher,  Irving,  52 

Foundations,  110 

France,  commercial  policy,  21; 
Cong,  of  Vienna,  23;  early  fairs, 
33;  1st  World's  Fair,  37;  Latin 
Monetary  Union,  49;  Teleg.  Cf., 
54;  railways,  55;  Sugar  Union, 
58;  Crimean  War,  61;  Olmpic 
games,  78;  emigration,  120; 
China,  140,  142;  Opium  Com., 
151 

Franco-German  League,  109 

Franco-Italian  League,  109 

Free  fairs,  32-34 

Free  Thinkers,  84 

French  language,  1 13 


French  Revolution,  21,  34,  35,  38 

Friendship  societies,  108 

Fulton,  Robert,  27 

Carton  Foundation,  1 10 

Geneva  Convention,  61 ,  63 

Geodedic  Association,  Int.,  50 

Geography,  38,  41,  50,  81 

Geology,  81 

Germany,  labor  legislation,  52; 
wireless  teleg.,  55;  railways,  55; 
Olympic  games,  78;  correspond- 
ence clubs,  107;  friendship  socie- 
ties, 109;  emigration  ,1 20;  opium, 
148,  151 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  31 

Good  Templars,  94 

Gottingen,  University  of,  103 

Great  Britain,  see  England 

Greece,  37,  49,  78,  156 

Greek  language,  113 

Grey,  Sir  Edward,  148,  150 

Hague  Conferences,  1 2,  45,  60,  63, 
96,  171 

Howard  University,  104 

Hastings,  Warren,  133 

Hershey,  Professor,  60 

HeuNaetse,  137 

History,  38,  41 

History  of  religion,  86 

Holland,  37,  58,  72,  78,  104,  107, 
148,  151 

Holy  Alliance,  24,  25,  26,  67,  169 

Home  industry,  90 

Hong  Kong,  138,  141 

Hong  merchants,  131 

Housing,  37,  88 

Hull,  William  I.,  64 

Hydographic  Council,  Int.,  50 

Hygiene,  38,  91 

Idiom  Neutral,  1 1 4 

Ido,  116 

India,  18,20,21,  133,  156 

Industrial  accidents,  88 

Industrial  life,  87 

Industrial  revolution,  27,  36 

Industrial  Property,  Int.  Bu.  of,  67 

Infant  mortality,  92 


206 


INDEX 


Insane,  92,  93 
Insurance,  social,  88 
"International,"  11 
International  Conciliation,  110 
Internationalis  Concordia,  106 
Internationalism,  new  conception, 
11;  defined,  12;  mutual  aid,  13; 
not    cosmopolitanism,    14;    pa- 
triotism and,  15;  developed  by 
western   nations,    18;   constitu- 
tionalism  and,   25;   emphasizes 
duties,  26;  completes  universaliz- 
ing cycle,  35;  religion  and,  40; 
international  habit,  72;  universi- 
ties and,  99;  world  language  and, 
113;  emigration  and,  118;  opium 
question  and,  Chap  X;  normal, 
159;  principles  of,  160;  limited, 
161;   national   duty,    162;   ten- 
dencies, 168;  higher  human  in- 
terests, 170;  seeks  permanency, 
171;  equalization,  173;  promotes 
peace,  174 

International  Reform  Bureau,  147 
Int.  Workingmen's  Assn.,  1 1 
Interparliamentary  Union,  96 
Italy,  37,  49,  55,  78,  104,  120,  151 
Japan,  18,  48,  52,  63,  100,  148,  151 
Japan  Society,  108 
Juvenile  courts,  96 
Kahn,  Albert,  104 
Kosmos,  107 
Labor  legislation,  52,  89 
Laissez  faire,  21 

Language,  national,  13,  100,  113 
Latin- American  Society,  108 
Latin  language,  19,99 
Latin  Monetary  Union,  49 
Latin  Union,  109 

Law,  international,  11,  17,  60,  173 
Legislation,  int.,  41,  60 
Leipzig,  University  of,  104 
Le  Play,  37 
Lieber,  Dr.  Francis,  62 
Lin,  Commissioner,  137,  152 
Literature,  national,  13,  19 
London  Conference,  60 


London,  Treaty  of,  59 

Louisana  Purchase  Exposition,  41 

Lubin,  45 

Lutheran  Church,  83 

Macartney,  Lord,  132 

Macaulay,  Lord,  14 

Manufacturing,  37,  78 

Marine  Cf.,  Int.,  57 

Maritime  law,  66 

Marx,  Karl,  11 

Mathematics,  38 

Medical  science,  41 

Mensuration,  50 

Mental  diseases,  92 

Mercantilism,  21 

Meridian,  prime,  48 

Methodists,  83 

Metternich,  25,  169 

Mexico,  20,  67 

Mexico  Society,  109 

Missionaries,  28 

Money,  34,  38,  48,  49 

Monroe  Doctrine,  26,  69 

Morphine,  154 

Mott,  JohnR.,  102 

Moving  pictures,  1 27 

Munich,  University  of,  104 

Music,  79 

Nanking,  Treaty  of,  138 

Round  About  Club,  107 

Royal  Opium  Com.,  145,  151 

Russia,  23,  24,  25,  33,  37,  52,  61, 

63,78,120,140,142,151 
St.  Bartholemew  Fair,  32 
St.  Louis,  41 

St.  Petersburg,  Declaration  of,  62 
Salvation  Army,  86 
Sanitation,  47,  167 
Scandinavian  Monetary  Union,  49 
Science,  15,29,38,41,80 
Sealing,  52 
Secret  diplomacy,  23 
Seismology,  51 
Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  145 
Slave  trade,  23,  59,  93,  171 
Smith,  Adam,  21 
Smithsonian  Institute,  57 


INDEX 


207 


Social  insurance,  88 

Social  interest,  87 

Socialism,  88 

Social  science,  40,  87 

Sociology,  87 

Sovereignty,  national,  131,  160 

Spain,  20,  23,  25,  26,  37,  104,  120 

Spiritualists,  83 

Sponge  fishermen,  90 

Standardization,  15,  33,  48,  58 

Statistics,  41,58,  87 

Steamships,  126 

Stephenson,  George,  27 

Stourbridge  Fair,  32 

Students,  100 

Student  Volunteers,  102 

Suez  Canal,  27,  48 

Sugar  Union,  58 

Sweden,  23,  37,  49,  51,  78,  156 

Sweet,  Henry,  115 

Switzerland,  37,  49,  52,  55,  61,  156 

Syndicalism,  88 

Taft,  William  H.,  148 

Telegraph,  28,  53 

Temperance,  94 

Theosophy,  84 

Tientsin,  Treaty  of,  143 

Time,  48 

Tramways,  78 

Troppau,  Cf.,  25,  163 

Troy  weight,  34 

Tuberculosis,  91 

Turkey,  24,37,61,  153,  156 

Unemployment,  89 

Union  des  Nationalites,  109 

Union  of  Int.  Associations,  97 

Unitarians,  83 

United  States,  1st  World's  Fair,  37; 
Monroe  Doctrine,  26;  sealing,  52; 
exch.  pub.  doc's.,  57;  opium,  59; 
Peace  Cf's.,  63;  Boxer  indemnity, 
101;  immigration,  119;  tolera- 
tion in,  120;  internationalism  in, 
124;  treaty  with  China,  140;  de- 
mands on  China,  142;  Treaty  of 
Tientsin,  143;  prohibition  of 
opium  traffic,  145;  Philippines, 
146;  Opium  Com.,  148-151; 


Opium  Cf.,  154 
Universal  Postal  Union,  12,  53,  72, 

164,  167 

Universal  Telegraphic  Union,  54 
Universities,  99 
Vasco  da  Gama,  20,  131 
Vattel,  154 
Venice,  19,  20 
Verona,  Cf.  of,  25,  59 
Vienna,  Congress  of,  21-30,  45,  59, 

163 

Volapiik,  114 
War,  60,  138,  141 
Weights  and  measures,  34,  38,  48, 

170 

Weltvereinigung  Ksomopolit,  107 
White  Cross  Society,  92 
White  slavery,  59,  95 
Williams,  S.  Wells,  143 
Wireless  telegraph,  55 
W.  C.  T.  U.,  94 
Woman  suffrage,  90 
Women,  37,  52,  90 
Woolsey,  T.  D.,  132 
Working  girls,  93 
Workingmen,  11,14,37,87 
World  Center,  98 
World  consciousness,  15 
World  federation,  172 
World  language,  113,  116 
World  Auxiliary  Congress,  39 
World's  Christian  Students  Fed., 

103 

World's  Columbian  Exposition,  39 
World's  fairs,  30-41 
World's  map,  50 

World's  Missionary  Conference,  85 
World's  Parliament  of  Religions, 

40,86 

World's  Sunday  School  Associa- 
tion, 85 

Wright,  Hamiliton,  151 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  84 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  84 
Zamenhof,  Dr.,  115 
Zionism,  83 
Zoology,  81 


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